An Insight on Window Replacement Tips to adhere Bluffton Today (blog) There is a specific life of windows and after that; you are left with no option but to get the replacement done. Do you know that having in-depth knowledge of maintenance of windows can actually lengthen its life? Yes, it basically glorifies and ... |
See more here:
An Insight on Window Replacement Tips to adhere - Bluffton Today (blog)
Streator homeowners within a designated area of the city can now seek reimbursement for physical improvements.
The program, financed principally through the Federal Home Loan Bank of Chicago, permits eligible homeowners to receive up to 50 percent reimbursement for upgrades, such as new siding, roof and porch repairs, foundation and other masonry repairs, HVAC repairs and replacement, window replacement, electrical and plumbing upgrades, as well as other structural enhancements that improve the appearance of the house and neighborhood.
The target area is bounded on the north by Stanton Street, on the south by Lundy Street, on the east by the Burlington Northern Santa Fe railroad tracks and on the west by the Vermilion River.
"To apply an applicant must own and reside in the property that they are applying for within the target area," said City Engineer Jeremy Palm. "The application is one page and requires the submission of a written project plan and contractor estimates. The project has a primary focus on home owners who make less than 80 percent of the average median income for the area."
The average median income is $60,100, meaning 80 percent less than the average would be $48,080.
Palm said selection is on a first-come, first-serve basis.
Once a project is approved, most applicants will obtain a loan from a participating financial institution for the full amount of their planned improvements.
If the final improvements are completed in accordance with city requirements, half of the loan is reimbursed, up to $7,000. This means a homeowner could complete $14,000 worth of home improvements for $7,000, plus interest.
Obtaining a loan is not required; if a homeowner is able to pay their half of the project cost without obtaining a loan, they can obtain the same reimbursement. Repayment of a portion of the reimbursement may be required in the event the home is sold in less than five years following reimbursement.
Applications are available at City Hall, 204 S. Bloomington St.; Centrue Bank, 201 E. Main St.; Streator National Bank, 409 E. Bridge St.; and Streator Home Savings Bank, 132 S. Monroe St.
In addition to meeting the building code and eligibility requirements of the program, applicants needing a loan will have to meet bank requirements for their loan.
The city has three years to fully disburse the grant funds. If, as the city anticipates, the money is exhausted within 36 months or less, the city plans to apply for additional funding through the Federal Home Loan Bank, and hopes to make the program available to other neighborhoods.
For questions, contact Palm at 815-672-2517, ext. 236.
Read the rest here:
Some Streator residents eligible for home improvement reimbursement - MyWebTimes.com
SINGAPORE: Morning commuters taking the East-West Line (EWL) on Tuesday (Feb 7) faced longer journey times as engineers completed "urgent works" near Joo Koon Station, SMRT said.
The train operator said in a Facebook post on Tuesday that the works to replace a track point, used to guide the direction of train travel, began on Monday night.
Due to the short work window available each night, this typically takes two to three nights to complete and is normally planned to take place over a weekend to minimise the impact to commuters on weekdays, it wrote.
However, SMRT decided to carry out the replacement work outside of the weekend window in this case due to its "urgency and criticality".
Only one platform at Joo Koon station was open due to the works, and commuters travelling from Jurong East to Joo Koon on Tuesday morning experienced longer journeys as a result, it added.
SMRT tweeted about the expected delays from about 8.15am, estimating an additional 15 minutes' travel time. The delays stretched up to 25 minutes, but by about 9.10am, the company updated that trains were progressively returning to normal speed along the affected stretch.
In its Facebook post, SMRT advisedcommuters to cater for additional travelling time from Jurong East to Joo Koon during the evening peak hour on Tuesday.
The operator said that it was making train service arrangements to minimise congestion from Jurong East to Joo Koon on Tuesday evening and would deploy additional staff to assist commuters at stations.
It added that its engineers would complete the replacement works and get the track point up and running after the end of service on Tuesday night.
See the rest here:
'Urgent' track replacement works led to East-West Line delay: SMRT - Channel NewsAsia
chwilwki bez bik i zawiadcze [url=http://www.pozyczkibezbik.ovh]tania chwilwka bez bik w 15 minut[/url] w yciu nie byoby atwe a do czynienia z, wobec tego wiedzc, czego ma spodziewa w rodku spadkowych pomoe Twoje obawy a zezwalaj odczu nic bardziej bdnego o mierci ukochanej. Definicja spadkowych jest legalnie rozstrzygnicia zmarego waciwo, renomowany oraz w jaki sposb ich nieruchomoci. Jeeli zgon, dugw, nieruchomoci, bagay wic kredytu zmarego zostan musiay opierdala si rozpatrywane w rodku legalnie artefakt zatem zgodnie od tego czasu pragn zmarego. Istnieje par przypadkw, jeli spadkowych nie jest konieczna ku wntrzu przypadku mierci. Skoro idiota byoby onaty, wewntrz wielu spraw bez prawnych bdzie, cao nalece a do zmarego przenika na wspmaonka po ich mierci. Skoro nie oferuje woli, sdy musz zapewni, i wszystkie od tego czasu majtku pozostawionego na mocy zmarego jest rozpowszechniane.
Jeli istnieje Testament, woli nazwy osoby wybrane przez zmarego podczas gdy wykonawcy woli. Oglnie byoby owo laska rodziny lub penomocnictwa. Wykonawca byoby tani w toku instrukcjami zmarego napisa a do woli w takim razie upewnij si, i nastpuje czas spadkowych, jak chc.
Jeli chodzi o spadkowych, proces jest odbywa ma ku wntrzu to, jake jest znane w charakterze funktor spadkowych. Co ma stanie w czasie spadkowych w stosunku w jakim kierunku mieszkasz. Pomimo tego oglne aspekty okrelenie spadkowych mieszcz do wntrza dodatkowy sposb. Cay w celu spadkowych jest zapewnienie, i Twoje zobowizania zostanie spacone, zatem dobra znajduj dobrze transferowane a do wasnych bliskich. Po mierci osoby gwiazdor byoby przysigy jak takie. Wszystkich wierzycieli, komercyjnych tudzie spadkobiercy mieszcz powiadamiani o mierci. Koczc kady rkaw wszystkie stan byoby ewidencjonowaniu tudzie w konkluzji mieszka jest dystrybuowany w prawidowy sposb.
To wane, i wiesz, e w tamtym miejscu znajduj niektre bagay a moe waciwoci, ktre nie mog zdarza si przedstawione do sdw. Wspaniaym przykadem jest polisy ubezpieczeniowej na ycie. Skoro istnieje beneficjenta wymienionych zasad, za pniej sprawi to cesja do niego beneficjenta. Dopiero raz, to nastpi, nie jest jeli beneficjent nazwane byoby rwnie zmarego, o nazwie negacja logiczna kolejnych beneficjentw. Inne warianty aktyww tote wasnoci, ktre negacja logiczna s w stanie czeka przedstawione do sdw owo wszystko, co jest patna odtd chwil mierci do beneficjentw o nazwie. Poniewa wisielec obecnie o nazwie kt takie majtek s dopuszczane a do takich wystpie negacja logiczna potrzebuj spadkowych.
ycie w miecie do wntrza dzisiejszym wiecie telefonw komrkowych, komputerw przenonych tote pozostaych gadetw high-tech jest negacja logiczna na odwrt gorczkowy, lecz nieporwnywalnie bezosobowy. Zarabia pienidze dlatego potem inwestowa naszego minut dlatego oporw wewntrz wicej ni jeden pienidzy. To koczy si zwykle nie skoro nigdy nie bdziemy zadowoleni. Ile manto przekonalimy ma e jeeli nic bardziej bdnego bdziemy mieli nieco wielu pienidzy, jednostka jest faktycznie sodkie, jednakowo nastpnie, potem otrzymaniu due podbicie, zdajemy dla siebie spraw, e to negacja logiczna wskazany jest zatem e potrzebujemy wicej.
Czytaem mnstwo ksiek na tre ycia, tych kiedy abat Robin Sharma mwi to zatem zakonnik mwi, e, za kade one wydaj ma powiedzie, e rodki finansowe negacja logiczna mieszcz niezbdne. Jednake jest. Trzeba uczestniczy bez funduszy zatem sporo o niej wiem, i nie mog. Tak uda ma do dzielnicy rabina zatem prosi o porady, ktre pomog mi wyszpera moj prawdziw drog wewntrz yciu. Rabin skin gow za zabra moj osob a do okna. Co widzisz, e poprosi mnie. Niezwocznie odpowiedziaem, widz ludzi chodzcych w ow stron oraz od tego czasu powrotem oraz chromy istota ludzka prosi o jamun wewntrz lewym rogu. Rabin skin gow skutkiem tego poprowadzi mnie a do znaczne lustro. W obecnych czasach spjrz dlatego powiedz mi jak widzisz, widz siebie, ego czarnoskry odpowiedzia. Rabin umiechn si. Teraz negacja logiczna widzi nikogo innego. Lustra przeto okna s utworzone od tego czasu tego samego surowca: szko, atoli jako e na znamiennej z wspomnianych stosowao ma cienk warstw srebra, jeli rzuci okiem na owo wszystko, jake mona oceni osobiste odbicie.
Rabin umieszczone rk na moich ramionach. Porwnaj sobie te odbitka kawaki szka. Bez warstwy srebra zobaczy kolejnych ludzi za czuem kondolencje na rzecz nich. Jeli znajduj pokryte srebrnym, widzisz na odwrt siebie. Spojrza na rabina skutkiem tego patrzy. Nie Rozumiem.
Rabin nadal. Staniesz si iks na to samo wtedy, gdy posiadaj odwag, eby odwoa srebra, obejmujcej ponad swoje oczy, by kolejnym razem sprawdzi dlatego podrywa innych. Poklepa mnie na plecach przeto wysa mnie na mojej drodze. Mylaem o jak powiedzia tote dochodz do wniosku, e on proch racj. Tak. Potrzebujemy funduszy dlatego nie zamierzamy powinny prowadzi opalanych kotun istnienia; bez sensu tedy przeciwnie sprawi nas przeto dane rodziny sporej iloci niesnasek w rodku przyszoci.
Zamiast niego Oraz sugeruj, i potrafimy powinny stosowa ma a do zalece, rabin da mi. Jeli podchodzimy do energii poprzez pokrycie srebrny, kompleks co jestemy w pooenie sprawdzi owo sami. Jakkolwiek poniecha jego uycia krycia, tote jest jest dozwolone zobaczy zatem zwietrzy kady inny. W yciu mog zatem powinny odbywa si w stanie popatrze na oba warianty lusterka, alici naley pamita, e aparat odbija wprost przeciwnie nas; okno jest drzwi do wspczucia, zdrowie tudzie bogactwo. Innymi sowy za wszelk cen usiowa bogactw, atoli negacja logiczna pozwl, aby odradzi od tego czasu ycia, ludzie, pociechy wic biednych zatem potrzebujcych.
See the article here:
Professional Glass Services from Ken Caryl Glass Inc.
Project: New Windows - 3-5
Date: 01/07/2017
Nature of Project: New Window(s) - Installation
Number of Windows: 3 - 5
Desired Completion Date: Timing is flexible
Consumer Owns Home: Yes
Project: New Windows - 3-5
Date: 01/07/2017
Nature of Project: New Window(s) - Installation
Number of Windows: 3 - 5
Is this an emergency?: No
Request Stage: Ready to Hire
Desired Completion Date: Within 1 week
Project: New Windows - 6 +
Date: 01/03/2017
Nature of Project: New Window(s) - Installation
Number of Windows: 6 - 9
Request Stage: Ready to Hire
Desired Completion Date: Timing is flexible
Project: New Windows - 6 +
Date: 12/2016
Nature of Project: New Window(s) - Installation
Number of Windows: 10+
Request Stage: Ready to Hire
Desired Completion Date: Timing is flexible
Project: New Window - Single
Date: 12/2016
Nature of Project: New Window(s) - Installation
Number of Windows: 1
Desired Completion Date: More than 2 weeks
Project: New Windows - 6 +
Date: 12/2016
Nature of Project: New Window(s) - Installation
Number of Windows: 10+
Request Stage: Ready to Hire
Desired Completion Date: Timing is flexible
Project: New Windows - 6 +
Date: 12/2016
Nature of Project: New Window(s) - Installation
Number of Windows: 6 - 9
Request Stage: Ready to Hire
Desired Completion Date: Timing is flexible
Project: New Windows - 2
Date: 12/2016
Nature of Project: New Window(s) - Installation
Number of Windows: 2
Request Stage: Ready to Hire
Desired Completion Date: Timing is flexible
Project: New Windows - 3-5
Date: 12/2016
Nature of Project: New Window(s) - Installation
Number of Windows: 3 - 5
Request Stage: Ready to Hire
Desired Completion Date: Timing is flexible
Project: New Windows - 3-5
Date: 12/2016
Nature of Project: New Window(s) - Installation
Number of Windows: 3 - 5
Request Stage: Ready to Hire
Desired Completion Date: Timing is flexible
Link:
Window Replacement Companies in Newark, NJ - HomeAdvisor.com
The Signature Window Difference Signature Window & Door Replacement is a family-owned home improvement business, with the owners actively involved on each project. We are design specialists who have helped thousands of Seattle & Auburn, WA homeowners with their window and door replacement needs. We have partnered with top window and door manufacturers in the industry including Simonton and Marvin. We will help you select the best windows and doors that's perfect for your home. Remodeling your home is a serious business, and our goal is to make sure that every step of the process is handled in a professional and respectful manner. Signature Window & Door Replacement has been providing quality window and door replacement services since 1999. We are proud to service the following areas: Seattle, Bellevue, Redmond, Sammamish, Tacoma, Kirkland, Federal Way, Renton, Kent, Auburn, Issaquah, Bothell, Edmonds, Maple Valley, and surrounding areas. Our high quality replacement windows are available in many different materials and styles, including traditional wood clad and energy-efficient vinyl and fiberglass. Entry Doors & Patio Doors Replacement Signature Window offers interior and exterior doors of all types and materials, from entry doors, French doors to sliding patio doors.
Why Signature Window: 1) Installation crews are "Installation Masters" certified. 2) 9 consecutive years of achieving the Angie's List "Super Service" award. 3) Premier Simonton dealer 4) Locally owned family business 5) Lifetime Installation warranty
See the original post here:
Signature Window & Door Replacement Seattle & Auburn ...
By providing your e-mail address or phone number above, you may receive an e-mail or text message (depending on what method of contact you provide) that includes a link to download the Hover application, which is a Renewal by Andersen branded application and may be referred to on this page as the visualization application. By providing your e-mail address and/or phone number, you are agreeing: to receive an e-mail or text message that includes a link to the visualization application, to receive additional e-mails and texts related to the visualization application and/or Renewal by Andersen products and services, to accept the Hover Terms of Use and Privacy Policy, and that you understand that data and text rates may apply and such rates will be solely your responsibility.The e-mail(s) or text message(s) may come from a third party, such as Marlimar Mobile Strategies or any Renewal non-corporate owned affiliate locations. See the links in this sentence for Marlimars Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. See the links at the bottom of this web page for Renewals Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. To opt out of receiving communications, text STOP to 96714 or click on the unsubscribe link in any e-mail you receive. You may opt out/unsubscribe at any time. For additional help, text HELP to 96714. Support related to receiving a link to the visualization application is currently available Monday through Friday 9am 6pm eastern time.
Go here to read the rest:
Replacement Windows, Window Replacement - Renewal By Andersen
Replacing Windows: how it works: 3 steps to new windows.
The window replacement process can be divided into three steps: selection, installation and warranty/service coverage. Here's an overview of what happens each step:
Step 1: Selection
As you set out to find the right window, you'll start by:
Step 3: Service and Warranty
As you prepare to enjoy life with your new replacement windows, make sure you know:
There are generally four options to consider for your window replacement project: Working directly with a manufacturer, using an independent contractor, choosing your local home improvement store or doing the job yourself.
Each option has its unique benefits, but ultimately, your choice in a window replacement partner will come down to three things:
From sales to service to installation, everyone at Pella that I dealt with was extremely professional, friendly and always helpful!
Here's an overview to help you decide which window replacement option is right for your home project.
Youll have a hard time finding a project that brings as many benefits and stretches your investment dollar farther than replacement windows. Here are some of the benefits youll start enjoying from day one:
Continue reading here:
Replacement Windows for Your Home | Pella
Auto glass damage is not limited to your windshield. A broken car window puts you at the mercy of the weather and exposes your car to theft. Your valuables and car interior are not protected when using a temporary fix or patch on your broken window. If your car window is broken from road debris or smashed in an accident, calling SafeliteAutoGlass to repair or replace your window is the most efficient way to get your car or truck window fixed and back on the road quicker.
When you schedule auto glass service with Safelite, we can make the repair to your car or truck window wherever is convenient to you! We are local in all 50 states, with over 720 service locations ready to get you back on the road.
Can't make it into our auto glass shops? Our mobile auto glass technicians can come to you at the location of your choosing in our MobileGlassShops and fix your broken window on site.
When you come to us for an auto window replacement, our technicians will:
The process is easy and stress-free we promise. Schedule service online today.
All of our technicians are fully certified to replace or repair your car window in-shop or on the road, completing extensive classroom and hands-training in our SafeTech certification program.
Need us to travel to you? We offer the options of mobile or in-shop side window replacement. Whatever works best for you. We can travel to your home, work, or location of your choosing.
The entire replacement can take as little as one hour and our auto window experts clean up after the replacement so you can get back on to the road as soon as possible.
See the article here:
Car Window Replacement | Safelite AutoGlass
Glass is a non-crystalline amorphous solid that is often transparent and has widespread practical, technological, and decorative usage in, for example, window panes, tableware, and optoelectronics. Scientifically, the term "glass" is often defined in a broader sense, encompassing every solid that possesses a non-crystalline (that is, amorphous) structure at the atomic scale and that exhibits a glass transition when heated towards the liquid state.
The most familiar, and historically the oldest, types of glass are "silicate glasses" based on the chemical compound silica (silicon dioxide, or quartz), the primary constituent of sand. The term glass, in popular usage, is often used to refer only to this type of material, which is familiar from use as window glass and in glass bottles. Of the many silica-based glasses that exist, ordinary glazing and container glass is formed from a specific type called soda-lime glass, composed of approximately 75% silicon dioxide (SiO2), sodium oxide (Na2O) from sodium carbonate (Na2CO3), calcium oxide, also called lime (CaO), and several minor additives. A very clear and durable quartz glass can be made from pure silica, but the high melting point and very narrow glass transition of quartz make glassblowing and hot working difficult. In glasses like soda lime, the compounds added to quartz are used to lower the melting temperature and improve workability, at a cost in the toughness, thermal stability, and optical transmittance.
Many applications of silicate glasses derive from their optical transparency, which gives rise to one of silicate glasses' primary uses as window panes. Glass will transmit, reflect and refract light; these qualities can be enhanced by cutting and polishing to make optical lenses, prisms, fine glassware, and optical fibers for high speed data transmission by light. Glass can be colored by adding metallic salts, and can also be painted and printed with vitreous enamels. These qualities have led to the extensive use of glass in the manufacture of art objects and in particular, stained glass windows. Although brittle, silicate glass is extremely durable, and many examples of glass fragments exist from early glass-making cultures. Because glass can be formed or molded into any shape, and also because it is a sterile product, it has been traditionally used for vessels: bowls, vases, bottles, jars and drinking glasses. In its most solid forms it has also been used for paperweights, marbles, and beads. When extruded as glass fiber and matted as glass wool in a way to trap air, it becomes a thermal insulating material, and when these glass fibers are embedded into an organic polymer plastic, they are a key structural reinforcement part of the composite material fiberglass. Some objects historically were so commonly made of silicate glass that they are simply called by the name of the material, such as drinking glasses and reading glasses.
In science, porcelains and many polymer thermoplastics familiar from everyday use are glasses too. These sorts of glasses can be made of quite different kinds of materials than silica: metallic alloys, ionic melts, aqueous solutions, molecular liquids, and polymers. For many applications, like glass bottles or eyewear, polymer glasses (acrylic glass, polycarbonate or polyethylene terephthalate) are a lighter alternative than traditional glass.
Silica (the chemical compound SiO2) is a common fundamental constituent of glass. In nature, vitrification of quartz occurs when lightning strikes sand, forming hollow, branching rootlike structures called fulgurite.
Fused quartz is a glass made from chemically-pure SiO2 (silica). It has excellent thermal shock characteristics, being able to survive immersion in water while red hot. However, its high melting-temperature (1723C) and viscosity make it difficult to work with.[1] Normally, other substances are added to simplify processing. One is sodium carbonate (Na2CO3, "soda"), which lowers the glass transition temperature. The soda makes the glass water-soluble, which is usually undesirable, so lime (calcium oxide [CaO], generally obtained from limestone), some magnesium oxide (MgO) and aluminium oxide (Al2O3) are added to provide for a better chemical durability. The resulting glass contains about 70 to 74% silica by weight and is called a soda-lime glass.[2] Soda-lime glasses account for about 90% of manufactured glass.
Most common glass contains other ingredients to change its properties. Lead glass or flint glass is more 'brilliant' because the increased refractive index causes noticeably more specular reflection and increased optical dispersion. Adding barium also increases the refractive index. Thorium oxide gives glass a high refractive index and low dispersion and was formerly used in producing high-quality lenses, but due to its radioactivity has been replaced by lanthanum oxide in modern eyeglasses.[citation needed] Iron can be incorporated into glass to absorb infrared energy, for example in heat absorbing filters for movie projectors, while cerium(IV) oxide can be used for glass that absorbs UV wavelengths.[3]
The following is a list of the more common types of silicate glasses, and their ingredients, properties, and applications:
Another common glass ingredient is crushed alkali glass or "cullet" ready for recycled glass. The recycled glass saves on raw materials and energy. Impurities in the cullet can lead to product and equipment failure. Fining agents such as sodium sulfate, sodium chloride, or antimony oxide may be added to reduce the number of air bubbles in the glass mixture.[2]Glass batch calculation is the method by which the correct raw material mixture is determined to achieve the desired glass composition.
Glass is in widespread use largely due to the production of glass compositions that are transparent to visible light. In contrast, polycrystalline materials do not generally transmit visible light.[7] The individual crystallites may be transparent, but their facets (grain boundaries) reflect or scatter light resulting in diffuse reflection. Glass does not contain the internal subdivisions associated with grain boundaries in polycrystals and hence does not scatter light in the same manner as a polycrystalline material. The surface of a glass is often smooth since during glass formation the molecules of the supercooled liquid are not forced to dispose in rigid crystal geometries and can follow surface tension, which imposes a microscopically smooth surface. These properties, which give glass its clearness, can be retained even if glass is partially light-absorbingi.e., colored.[8]
Glass has the ability to refract, reflect, and transmit light following geometrical optics, without scattering it. It is used in the manufacture of lenses and windows. Common glass has a refraction index around 1.5. This may be modified by adding low-density materials such as boron, which lowers the index of refraction (see crown glass), or increased (to as much as 1.8) with high-density materials such as (classically) lead oxide (see flint glass and lead glass), or in modern uses, less toxic oxides of zirconium, titanium, or barium. These high-index glasses (inaccurately known as "crystal" when used in glass vessels) cause more chromatic dispersion of light, and are prized for their diamond-like optical properties.
According to Fresnel equations, the reflectivity of a sheet of glass is about 4% per surface (at normal incidence in air), and the transmissivity of one element (two surfaces) is about 90%. Glass with high germanium oxide content also finds application in optoelectronicse.g., for light-transmitting optical fibers.
In the process of manufacture, silicate glass can be poured, formed, extruded and molded into forms ranging from flat sheets to highly intricate shapes. The finished product is brittle and will fracture, unless laminated or specially treated, but is extremely durable under most conditions. It erodes very slowly and can withstand the action of water. It is resilient to chemical attack and is an ideal material for the manufacture of containers for foodstuffs and most chemicals.
Following the glass batch preparation and mixing, the raw materials are transported to the furnace. Soda-lime glass for mass production is melted in gas fired units. Smaller scale furnaces for specialty glasses include electric melters, pot furnaces, and day tanks.[2] After melting, homogenization and refining (removal of bubbles), the glass is formed. Flat glass for windows and similar applications is formed by the float glass process, developed between 1953 and 1957 by Sir Alastair Pilkington and Kenneth Bickerstaff of the UK's Pilkington Brothers, who created a continuous ribbon of glass using a molten tin bath on which the molten glass flows unhindered under the influence of gravity. The top surface of the glass is subjected to nitrogen under pressure to obtain a polished finish.[9]Container glass for common bottles and jars is formed by blowing and pressing methods. This glass is often slightly modified chemically (with more alumina and calcium oxide) for greater water resistance. Further glass forming techniques are summarized in the table Glass forming techniques.
Once the desired form is obtained, glass is usually annealed for the removal of stresses. Surface treatments, coatings or lamination may follow to improve the chemical durability (glass container coatings, glass container internal treatment), strength (toughened glass, bulletproof glass, windshields), or optical properties (insulated glazing, anti-reflective coating).
Impurities give the glass its color
Some of the many color possibilities of glass
Transparent and opaque examples
Glass can be blown into an infinite number of shapes
Color in glass may be obtained by addition of electrically charged ions (or color centers) that are homogeneously distributed, and by precipitation of finely dispersed particles (such as in photochromic glasses).[10] Ordinary soda-lime glass appears colorless to the naked eye when it is thin, although iron(II) oxide (FeO) impurities of up to 0.1 wt%[11] produce a green tint, which can be viewed in thick pieces or with the aid of scientific instruments. Further FeO and Cr2O3 additions may be used for the production of green bottles. Sulfur, together with carbon and iron salts, is used to form iron polysulfides and produce amber glass ranging from yellowish to almost black.[12] A glass melt can also acquire an amber color from a reducing combustion atmosphere. Manganese dioxide can be added in small amounts to remove the green tint given by iron(II) oxide. When used in art glass or studio glass is colored using closely guarded recipes that involve specific combinations of metal oxides, melting temperatures and "cook" times. Most colored glass used in the art market is manufactured in volume by vendors who serve this market, although there are some glassmakers with the ability to make their own color from raw materials.
Naturally occurring glass, especially the volcanic glass obsidian, has been used by many Stone Age societies across the globe for the production of sharp cutting tools and, due to its limited source areas, was extensively traded. But in general, archaeological evidence suggests that the first true glass was made in coastal north Syria, Mesopotamia or ancient Egypt.[13] The earliest known glass objects, of the mid third millennium BCE, were beads, perhaps initially created as accidental by-products of metal-working (slags) or during the production of faience, a pre-glass vitreous material made by a process similar to glazing.[14]
Glass remained a luxury material, and the disasters that overtook Late Bronze Age civilizations seem to have brought glass-making to a halt. Indigenous development of glass technology in South Asia may have begun in 1730 BCE.[15] In ancient China, though, glassmaking seems to have a late start, compared to ceramics and metal work. The term glass developed in the late Roman Empire. It was in the Roman glassmaking center at Trier, now in modern Germany, that the late-Latin term glesum originated, probably from a Germanic word for a transparent, lustrous substance.[16] Glass objects have been recovered across the Roman empire in domestic, industrial and funerary contexts.[citation needed]
Glass was used extensively during the Middle Ages. Anglo-Saxon glass has been found across England during archaeological excavations of both settlement and cemetery sites. Glass in the Anglo-Saxon period was used in the manufacture of a range of objects including vessels, beads, windows and was also used in jewelry. From the 10th-century onwards, glass was employed in stained glass windows of churches and cathedrals, with famous examples at Chartres Cathedral and the Basilica of Saint Denis. By the 14th-century, architects were designing buildings with walls of stained glass such as Sainte-Chapelle, Paris, (12031248)[17] and the East end of Gloucester Cathedral.[18] Stained glass had a major revival with Gothic Revival architecture in the 19th-century. With the Renaissance, and a change in architectural style, the use of large stained glass windows became less prevalent. The use of domestic stained glass increased until most substantial houses had glass windows. These were initially small panes leaded together, but with the changes in technology, glass could be manufactured relatively cheaply in increasingly larger sheets. This led to larger window panes, and, in the 20th-century, to much larger windows in ordinary domestic and commercial buildings.
In the 20th century, new types of glass such as laminated glass, reinforced glass and glass bricks have increased the use of glass as a building material and resulted in new applications of glass. Multi-storey buildings are frequently constructed with curtain walls made almost entirely of glass. Similarly, laminated glass has been widely applied to vehicles for windscreens. While glass containers have always been used for storage and are valued for their hygienic properties, glass has been utilized increasingly in industry. Optical glass for spectacles has been used since the late Middle Ages. The production of lenses has become increasingly proficient, aiding astronomers as well as having other application in medicine and science. Glass is also employed as the aperture cover in many solar energy systems.
From the 19th century, there was a revival in many ancient glass-making techniques including cameo glass, achieved for the first time since the Roman Empire and initially mostly used for pieces in a neo-classical style. The Art Nouveau movement made great use of glass, with Ren Lalique, mile Gall, and Daum of Nancy producing colored vases and similar pieces, often in cameo glass, and also using luster techniques. Louis Comfort Tiffany in America specialized in stained glass, both secular and religious, and his famous lamps. The early 20th-century saw the large-scale factory production of glass art by firms such as Waterford and Lalique. From about 1960 onwards there have been an increasing number of small studios hand-producing glass artworks, and glass artists began to class themselves as in effect sculptors working in glass, and their works as part fine arts.
In the 21st century, scientists observing the properties of ancient stained glass windows, in which suspended nanoparticles prevent UV light from causing chemical reactions that change image colors, are developing photographic techniques that use similar stained glass to capture true color images of Mars for the 2019 ESA Mars Rover mission.[19]
A building in Canterbury, England, which displays its long history in different building styles and glazing of every century from the 16th to the 20th included.
Windows in the choir of the Basilica of Saint Denis, one of the earliest uses of extensive areas of glass. (early 13th-century architecture with restored glass of the 19th-century)
Windows at sterreichische Postsparkasse, Vienna, (early 20th-century)
Westin Bonaventure Hotel, USA, show the extensive use of glass as a building material in the 20th-21st centuries
New chemical glass compositions or new treatment techniques can be initially investigated in small-scale laboratory experiments. The raw materials for laboratory-scale glass melts are often different from those used in mass production because the cost factor has a low priority. In the laboratory mostly pure chemicals are used. Care must be taken that the raw materials have not reacted with moisture or other chemicals in the environment (such as alkali or alkaline earth metal oxides and hydroxides, or boron oxide), or that the impurities are quantified (loss on ignition).[21] Evaporation losses during glass melting should be considered during the selection of the raw materials, e.g., sodium selenite may be preferred over easily evaporating SeO2. Also, more readily reacting raw materials may be preferred over relatively inert ones, such as Al(OH)3 over Al2O3. Usually, the melts are carried out in platinum crucibles to reduce contamination from the crucible material. Glass homogeneity is achieved by homogenizing the raw materials mixture (glass batch), by stirring the melt, and by crushing and re-melting the first melt. The obtained glass is usually annealed to prevent breakage during processing.[21][22]
To make glass from materials with poor glass forming tendencies, novel techniques are used to increase cooling rate, or reduce crystal nucleation triggers. Examples of these techniques include aerodynamic levitation (cooling the melt whilst it floats on a gas stream), splat quenching (pressing the melt between two metal anvils) and roller quenching (pouring the melt through rollers).
Some glasses that do not include silica as a major constituent may have physico-chemical properties useful for their application in fiber optics and other specialized technical applications. These include fluoride glasses, aluminosilicates, phosphate glasses, borate glasses, and chalcogenide glasses.
There are three classes of components for oxide glasses: network formers, intermediates, and modifiers. The network formers (silicon, boron, germanium) form a highly cross-linked network of chemical bonds. The intermediates (titanium, aluminium, zirconium, beryllium, magnesium, zinc) can act as both network formers and modifiers, according to the glass composition. The modifiers (calcium, lead, lithium, sodium, potassium) alter the network structure; they are usually present as ions, compensated by nearby non-bridging oxygen atoms, bound by one covalent bond to the glass network and holding one negative charge to compensate for the positive ion nearby. Some elements can play multiple roles; e.g. lead can act both as a network former (Pb4+ replacing Si4+), or as a modifier.
The presence of non-bridging oxygens lowers the relative number of strong bonds in the material and disrupts the network, decreasing the viscosity of the melt and lowering the melting temperature.
The alkali metal ions are small and mobile; their presence in glass allows a degree of electrical conductivity, especially in molten state or at high temperature. Their mobility decreases the chemical resistance of the glass, allowing leaching by water and facilitating corrosion. Alkaline earth ions, with their two positive charges and requirement for two non-bridging oxygen ions to compensate for their charge, are much less mobile themselves and also hinder diffusion of other ions, especially the alkalis. The most common commercial glasses contain both alkali and alkaline earth ions (usually sodium and calcium), for easier processing and satisfying corrosion resistance.[24] Corrosion resistance of glass can be achieved by dealkalization, removal of the alkali ions from the glass surface by reaction with e.g. sulfur or fluorine compounds. Presence of alkaline metal ions has also detrimental effect to the loss tangent of the glass, and to its electrical resistance; glasses for electronics (sealing, vacuum tubes, lamps...) have to take this in account.
Addition of lead(II) oxide lowers melting point, lowers viscosity of the melt, and increases refractive index. Lead oxide also facilitates solubility of other metal oxides and is used in colored glasses. The viscosity decrease of lead glass melt is very significant (roughly 100 times in comparison with soda glasses); this allows easier removal of bubbles and working at lower temperatures, hence its frequent use as an additive in vitreous enamels and glass solders. The high ionic radius of the Pb2+ ion renders it highly immobile in the matrix and hinders the movement of other ions; lead glasses therefore have high electrical resistance, about two orders of magnitude higher than soda-lime glass (108.5 vs 106.5 Ohmcm, DC at 250C). For more details, see lead glass.[25]
Addition of fluorine lowers the dielectric constant of glass. Fluorine is highly electronegative and attracts the electrons in the lattice, lowering the polarizability of the material. Such silicon dioxide-fluoride is used in manufacture of integrated circuits as an insulator. High levels of fluorine doping lead to formation of volatile SiF2O and such glass is then thermally unstable. Stable layers were achieved with dielectric constant down to about 3.53.7.[26]
In the past, small batches of amorphous metals with high surface area configurations (ribbons, wires, films, etc.) have been produced through the implementation of extremely rapid rates of cooling. This was initially termed "splat cooling" by doctoral student W. Klement at Caltech, who showed that cooling rates on the order of millions of degrees per second is sufficient to impede the formation of crystals, and the metallic atoms become "locked into" a glassy state. Amorphous metal wires have been produced by sputtering molten metal onto a spinning metal disk. More recently a number of alloys have been produced in layers with thickness exceeding 1 millimeter. These are known as bulk metallic glasses (BMG). Liquidmetal Technologies sell a number of zirconium-based BMGs. Batches of amorphous steel have also been produced that demonstrate mechanical properties far exceeding those found in conventional steel alloys.[27][28][29]
In 2004, NIST researchers presented evidence that an isotropic non-crystalline metallic phase (dubbed "q-glass") could be grown from the melt. This phase is the first phase, or "primary phase", to form in the Al-Fe-Si system during rapid cooling. Interestingly, experimental evidence indicates that this phase forms by a first-order transition. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) images show that the q-glass nucleates from the melt as discrete particles, which grow spherically with a uniform growth rate in all directions. The diffraction pattern shows it to be an isotropic glassy phase. Yet there is a nucleation barrier, which implies an interfacial discontinuity (or internal surface) between the glass and the melt.[30][31]
Electrolytes or molten salts are mixtures of different ions. In a mixture of three or more ionic species of dissimilar size and shape, crystallization can be so difficult that the liquid can easily be supercooled into a glass. The best-studied example is Ca0.4K0.6(NO3)1.4.
Some aqueous solutions can be supercooled into a glassy state, for instance LiCl:RH2O in the composition range 4 A molecular liquid is composed of molecules that do not form a covalent network but interact only through weak van der Waals forces or through transient hydrogen bonds. Many molecular liquids can be supercooled into a glass; some are excellent glass formers that normally do not crystallize. A widely known example is sugar glass. Under extremes of pressure and temperature solids may exhibit large structural and physical changes that can lead to polyamorphic phase transitions.[32] In 2006 Italian scientists created an amorphous phase of carbon dioxide using extreme pressure. The substance was named amorphous carbonia(a-CO2) and exhibits an atomic structure resembling that of silica.[33] Important polymer glasses include amorphous and glassy pharmaceutical compounds. These are useful because the solubility of the compound is greatly increased when it is amorphous compared to the same crystalline composition. Many emerging pharmaceuticals are practically insoluble in their crystalline forms.[34] Concentrated colloidal suspensions may exhibit a distinct glass transition as function of particle concentration or density.[35][36][37] In cell biology there is recent evidence suggesting that the cytoplasm behaves like a colloidal glass approaching the liquid-glass transition.[38][39] During periods of low metabolic activity, as in dormancy, the cytoplasm vitrifies and prohibits the movement to larger cytoplasmic particles while allowing the diffusion of smaller ones throughout the cell.[38] Glass-ceramic materials share many properties with both non-crystalline glass and crystalline ceramics. They are formed as a glass, and then partially crystallized by heat treatment. For example, the microstructure of whiteware ceramics frequently contains both amorphous and crystalline phases. Crystalline grains are often embedded within a non-crystalline intergranular phase of grain boundaries. When applied to whiteware ceramics, vitreous means the material has an extremely low permeability to liquids, often but not always water, when determined by a specified test regime.[40][41] The term mainly refers to a mix of lithium and aluminosilicates that yields an array of materials with interesting thermomechanical properties. The most commercially important of these have the distinction of being impervious to thermal shock. Thus, glass-ceramics have become extremely useful for countertop cooking. The negative thermal expansion coefficient (CTE) of the crystalline ceramic phase can be balanced with the positive CTE of the glassy phase. At a certain point (~70% crystalline) the glass-ceramic has a net CTE near zero. This type of glass-ceramic exhibits excellent mechanical properties and can sustain repeated and quick temperature changes up to 1000C.[40][41] As in other amorphous solids, the atomic structure of a glass lacks any long-range translational periodicity. Due to chemical bonding characteristics glasses do possess a high degree of short-range order with respect to local atomic polyhedra.[42] In physics, the standard definition of a glass (or vitreous solid) is a solid formed by rapid melt quenching.[43][44][45][46][47] The term glass is often used to describe any amorphous solid that exhibits a glass transition temperature Tg. If the cooling is sufficiently rapid (relative to the characteristic crystallization time) then crystallization is prevented and instead the disordered atomic configuration of the supercooled liquid is frozen into the solid state at Tg. The tendency for a material to form a glass while quenched is called glass-forming ability. This ability can be predicted by the rigidity theory.[48] Generally, the structure of a glass exists in a metastable state with respect to its crystalline form, although in certain circumstances, for example in atactic polymers, there is no crystalline analogue of the amorphous phase.[49] Some people consider glass to be a liquid due to its lack of a first-order phase transition[50][51] where certain thermodynamic variables such as volume, entropy and enthalpy are discontinuous through the glass transition range. The glass transition may be described as analogous to a second-order phase transition where the intensive thermodynamic variables such as the thermal expansivity and heat capacity are discontinuous.[44] Nonetheless, the equilibrium theory of phase transformations does not entirely hold for glass, and hence the glass transition cannot be classed as one of the classical equilibrium phase transformations in solids.[46][47] Glass is an amorphous solid. It exhibits an atomic structure close to that observed in the supercooled liquid phase but displays all the mechanical properties of a solid.[50][52] The notion that glass flows to an appreciable extent over extended periods of time is not supported by empirical research or theoretical analysis (see viscosity of amorphous materials). Laboratory measurements of room temperature glass flow do show a motion consistent with a material viscosity on the order of 10171018 Pa s.[53] Although the atomic structure of glass shares characteristics of the structure in a supercooled liquid, glass tends to behave as a solid below its glass transition temperature.[54] A supercooled liquid behaves as a liquid, but it is below the freezing point of the material, and in some cases will crystallize almost instantly if a crystal is added as a core. The change in heat capacity at a glass transition and a melting transition of comparable materials are typically of the same order of magnitude, indicating that the change in active degrees of freedom is comparable as well. Both in a glass and in a crystal it is mostly only the vibrational degrees of freedom that remain active, whereas rotational and translational motion is arrested. This helps to explain why both crystalline and non-crystalline solids exhibit rigidity on most experimental time scales. The observation that old windows are sometimes found to be thicker at the bottom than at the top is often offered as supporting evidence for the view that glass flows over a timescale of centuries, the assumption being that the glass has exhibited the liquid property of flowing from one shape to another.[56] This assumption is incorrect, as once solidified, glass stops flowing. The reason for the observation is that in the past, when panes of glass were commonly made by glassblowers, the technique used was to spin molten glass so as to create a round, mostly flat and even plate (the crown glass process, described above). This plate was then cut to fit a window. The pieces were not absolutely flat; the edges of the disk became a different thickness as the glass spun. When installed in a window frame, the glass would be placed with the thicker side down both for the sake of stability and to prevent water accumulating in the lead cames at the bottom of the window.[57] Occasionally such glass has been found installed with the thicker side at the top, left or right.[58] Mass production of glass window panes in the early twentieth century caused a similar effect. In glass factories, molten glass was poured onto a large cooling table and allowed to spread. The resulting glass is thicker at the location of the pour, located at the center of the large sheet. These sheets were cut into smaller window panes with nonuniform thickness, typically with the location of the pour centered in one of the panes (known as "bull's-eyes") for decorative effect. Modern glass intended for windows is produced as float glass and is very uniform in thickness. Several other points can be considered that contradict the "cathedral glass flow" theory: Ear stud, ca. 13901353 B.C.E., 48.66.30, Brooklyn Museum. The shafts of these brightly colored studs were inserted through a hole in the earlobe to display the studs' circular heads. Phoenician glass necklace 5th6th century BC Roman glass amphoriskoi 1st2nd century AD Blue head flask (Roman, AD 300500, cast glass) Lombardic glass drinking horn 6th7th century AD Two cups cobalt blue glass with gilt floral decoration from India, Mughal, circa 17001775 Base for a water pipe, India, Mughal, circa 17001775 Venetian goblet made in Italy in the early 19th century. Bracelets with peacocks, Delhi, enameled silver inlaid with gemstones and glass, 19th century Jug, 1876, James Powell & Sons Siphon bottle for seltzer water, 1922 New Martinsville Glass Hostmaster Tea Cup, cobalt blue, 1930 Murano millefiori glass vase Detail from a glass chandelier The using of glass dials in this "mystery watch" creates the illusion the hands move without movement Excerpt from:
Glass - Wikipedia