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Plumbing is any system that conveys fluids for a wide range of applications. Plumbing uses pipes, valves, plumbing fixtures, tanks, and other apparatuses to convey fluids.[1] Heating and cooling (HVAC), waste removal, and potable water delivery are among the most common uses for plumbing, but it is not limited to these applications.[2] The word derives from the Latin for lead, plumbum, as the first effective pipes used in the Roman era were lead pipes.[3]

In the developed world, plumbing infrastructure is critical to public health and sanitation.[4][5] Boilermakers and pipefitters are not plumbers, although they work with piping as part of their trade, but their work can include some plumbing.

Plumbing originated during ancient civilizations such as the Greek, Roman, Persian, Indian, and Chinese cities as they developed public baths and needed to provide potable water and wastewater removal, for larger numbers of people.[6] Standardized earthen plumbing pipes with broad flanges making use of asphalt for preventing leakages appeared in the urban settlements of the Indus Valley Civilization by 2700 BC.[7] The Romans used lead pipe inscriptions to prevent water theft.The word "plumber" dates from the Roman Empire.[8] The Latin for lead is plumbum. Roman roofs used lead in conduits and drain pipes[9] and some were also covered with lead, lead was also used for piping and for making baths.[10]

Plumbing reached its early apex in ancient Rome, which saw the introduction of expansive systems of aqueducts, tile wastewater removal, and widespread use of lead pipes. With the Fall of Rome both water supply and sanitation stagnatedor regressedfor well over 1,000 years. Improvement was very slow, with little effective progress made until the growth of modern densely populated cities in the 1800s. During this period, public health authorities began pressing for better waste disposal systems to be installed, to prevent or control epidemics of disease. Earlier, the waste disposal system had merely consisted of collecting waste and dumping it on the ground or into a river. Eventually the development of separate, underground water and sewage systems eliminated open sewage ditches and cesspools.

Most large cities today pipe solid wastes to sewage treatment plants in order to separate and partially purify the water, before emptying into streams or other bodies of water. For potable water use, galvanized iron piping was commonplace in the United States from the late 1800s until around 1960. After that period, copper piping took over, first soft copper with flared fittings, then with rigid copper tubing utilizing soldered fittings.

The use of lead for potable water declined sharply after World War II because of increased awareness of the dangers of lead poisoning. At this time, copper piping was introduced as a better and safer alternative to lead pipes.[11]

The major categories of plumbing systems or subsystems are:[12]

A water pipe is a pipe or tube, frequently made of plastic or metal,[a] that carries pressurized and treated fresh water to a building (as part of a municipal water system), as well as inside the building.

For many centuries, lead was the favoured material for water pipes, because its malleability made it practical to work into the desired shape. (Such use was so common that the word "plumbing" derives from plumbum, the Latin word for lead.) This was a source of lead-related health problems in the years before the health hazards of ingesting lead were fully understood; among these were stillbirths and high rates of infant mortality. Lead water pipes were still widely used in the early 20th century, and remain in many households. In addition, lead-tin alloy solder was commonly used to join copper pipes, but modern practice uses tin-antimony alloy solder instead, in order to eliminate lead hazards.[13]

Despite the Romans' common use of lead pipes, their aqueducts rarely poisoned people. Unlike other parts of the world where lead pipes cause poisoning, the Roman water had so much calcium in it that a layer of plaque prevented the water contacting the lead itself. What often causes confusion is the large amount of evidence of widespread lead poisoning, particularly amongst those who would have had easy access to piped water.[14] This was an unfortunate result of lead being used in cookware and as an additive to processed food and drink, for example as a preservative in wine.[15] Roman lead pipe inscriptions provided information on the owner to prevent water theft.

Wooden pipes were used in London and elsewhere during the 16th and 17th centuries. The pipes were hollowed-out logs, which were tapered at the end with a small hole in which the water would pass through.[16] The multiple pipes were then sealed together with hot animal fat. They were often used in Montreal and Boston in the 1800s, and built-up wooden tubes were widely used in the USA during the 20th century. These pipes, used in place of corrugated iron or reinforced concrete pipes, were made of sections cut from short lengths of wood. Locking of adjacent rings with hardwood dowel pins produced a flexible structure. About 100,000 feet of these wooden pipes were installed during WW2 in drainage culverts, storm sewers and conduits, under highways and at army camps, naval stations, airfields and ordnance plants.

Cast iron and ductile iron pipe was long a lower-cost alternative to copper, before the advent of durable plastic materials but special non-conductive fittings must be used where transitions are to be made to other metallic pipes, except for terminal fittings, in order to avoid corrosion owing to electrochemical reactions between dissimilar metals (see galvanic cell).[17]

Bronze fittings and short pipe segments are commonly used in combination with various materials.[18]

The difference between pipes and tubes is simply in the way it is sized. PVC pipe for plumbing applications and galvanized steel pipe for instance, are measured in IPS (iron pipe size). Copper tube, CPVC, PeX and other tubing is measured nominally, which is basically an average diameter. These sizing schemes allow for universal adaptation of transitional fittings. For instance, 1/2" PeX tubing is the same size as 1/2" copper tubing. 1/2" PVC on the other hand is not the same size as 1/2" tubing, and therefore requires either a threaded male or female adapter to connect them. When used in agricultural irrigation, the singular form "pipe" is often used as a plural.[19]

Pipe is available in rigid "joints", which come in various lengths depending on the material. Tubing, in particular copper, comes in rigid hard tempered "joints" or soft tempered (annealed) rolls. PeX and CPVC tubing also comes in rigid "joints" or flexible rolls. The temper of the copper, that is whether it is a rigid "joint" or flexible roll, does not affect the sizing.[19]

The thicknesses of the water pipe and tube walls can vary. Pipe wall thickness is denoted by various schedules or for large bore polyethylene pipe in the UK by the Standard Dimension Ratio (SDR), defined as the ratio of the pipe diameter to its wall thickness. Pipe wall thickness increases with schedule, and is available in schedules 20, 40, 80, and higher in special cases. The schedule is largely determined by the operating pressure of the system, with higher pressures commanding greater thickness. Copper tubing is available in four wall thicknesses: type DWV (thinnest wall; only allowed as drain pipe per UPC), type 'M' (thin; typically only allowed as drain pipe by IPC code), type 'L' (thicker, standard duty for water lines and water service), and type 'K' (thickest, typically used underground between the main and the meter). Because piping and tubing are commodities, having a greater wall thickness implies higher initial cost. Thicker walled pipe generally implies greater durability and higher pressure tolerances.

Wall thickness does not affect pipe or tubing size.[20] 1/2" L copper has the same outer diameter as 1/2" K or M copper. The same applies to pipe schedules. As a result, a slight increase in pressure losses is realized due to a decrease in flowpath as wall thickness is increased. In other words, 1 foot of 1/2" L copper has slightly less volume than 1 foot of 1/2 M copper.[citation needed]

Water systems of ancient times relied on gravity for the supply of water, using pipes or channels usually made of clay, lead, bamboo, wood, or stone. Hollowed wooden logs wrapped in steel banding were used for plumbing pipes, particularly water mains. Logs were used for water distribution in England close to 500 years ago. US cities began using hollowed logs in the late 1700s through the 1800s. Today, most plumbing supply pipe is made out of steel, copper, and plastic; most waste (also known as "soil")[21] out of steel, copper, plastic, and cast iron.[21]

The straight sections of plumbing systems are called "pipes" or "tubes". A pipe is typically formed via casting or welding, whereas a tube is made through extrusion. Pipe normally has thicker walls and may be threaded or welded, while tubing is thinner-walled and requires special joining techniques such as brazing, compression fitting, crimping, or for plastics, solvent welding. These joining techniques are discussed in more detail in the piping and plumbing fittings article.

Galvanized steel potable water supply and distribution pipes are commonly found with nominal pipe sizes from 38 inch (9.5mm) to 2 inches (51mm). It is rarely used today for new construction residential plumbing. Steel pipe has National Pipe Thread (NPT) standard tapered male threads, which connect with female tapered threads on elbows, tees, couplers, valves, and other fittings. Galvanized steel (often known simply as "galv" or "iron" in the plumbing trade) is relatively expensive, and difficult to work with due to weight and requirement of a pipe threader. It remains in common use for repair of existing "galv" systems and to satisfy building code non-combustibility requirements typically found in hotels, apartment buildings and other commercial applications. It is also extremely durable and resistant to mechanical abuse. Black lacquered steel pipe is the most widely used pipe material for fire sprinklers and natural gas.

Most typical single family home systems won't require supply piping larger than 34 inch (19mm) due to expense as well as steel piping's tendency to become obstructed from internal rusting and mineral deposits forming on the inside of the pipe over time once the internal galvanizing zinc coating has degraded. In potable water distribution service, galvanized steel pipe has a service life of about 30 to 50 years, although it is not uncommon for it to be less in geographic areas with corrosive water contaminants.

Copper pipe and tubing was widely used for domestic water systems in the latter half of the twentieth century. Demand for copper products has fallen due to the dramatic increase in the price of copper, resulting in increased demand for alternative products including PEX and stainless steel.

Plastic pipe is in wide use for domestic water supply and drain-waste-vent (DWV) pipe. Principal types include:Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) was produced experimentally in the 19th century but did not become practical to manufacture until 1926, when Waldo Semon of BF Goodrich Co. developed a method to plasticize PVC, making it easier to process. PVC pipe began to be manufactured in the 1940s and was in wide use for Drain-Waste-Vent piping during the reconstruction of Germany and Japan following WWII. In the 1950s, plastics manufacturers in Western Europe and Japan began producing acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) pipe. The method for producing cross-linked polyethylene (PEX) was also developed in the 1950s. Plastic supply pipes have become increasingly common, with a variety of materials and fittings employed.

Present-day water-supply systems use a network of high-pressure pumps, and pipes in buildings are now made of copper,[25] brass, plastic (particularly cross-linked polyethylene called PEX, which is estimated to be used in 60% of single-family homes[26]), or other nontoxic material. Due to its toxicity, most cities moved away from lead water-supply piping by the 1920s in the United States,[27] although lead pipes were approved by national plumbing codes into the 1980s,[28] and lead was used in plumbing solder for drinking water until it was banned in 1986.[27] Drain and vent lines are made of plastic, steel, cast-iron, or lead.[29][30]

A specific water pipe made for use with pressure vessels. The pipe can sustain high pressure-water and is relatively small

Connecting to an existing water line (white pipe) with a stainless steel tapping sleeve and valve (red). A concrete thrust block is being formed behind the new connection.

In addition to lengths of pipe or tubing, pipe fittings are used in plumbing systems, such as valves, elbows, tees, and unions.[31] Pipe and fittings are held in place with pipe hangers and strapping.

Plumbing fixtures are exchangeable devices using water that can be connected to a building's plumbing system. They are considered to be "fixtures", in that they are semi-permanent parts of buildings, not usually owned or maintained separately. Plumbing fixtures are seen by and designed for the end-users. Some examples of fixtures include water closets[32] (also known as toilets), urinals, bidets, showers, bathtubs, utility and kitchen sinks, drinking fountains, ice makers, humidifiers, air washers, fountains, and eye wash stations.

Threaded pipe joints are sealed with thread seal tape or pipe dope. Many plumbing fixtures are sealed to their mounting surfaces with plumber's putty.[33]

Plumbing equipment includes devices often hidden behind walls or in utility spaces which are not seen by the general public. It includes water meters, pumps, expansion tanks, back flow preventers, water filters, UV sterilization lights, water softeners, water heaters, heat exchangers, gauges, and control systems.

There are many tools a plumber needs to do a good plumbing job. While many simple plumbing tasks can be completed with a few common hand held tools, other more complex jobs require specialised tools, designed specifically to make the job easier.

Specialized plumbing tools include pipe wrenches, flaring pliers, pipe vise, pipe bending machine, pipe cutter, dies, and joining tools such as soldering torches and crimp tools. New tools have been developed to help plumbers fix problems more efficiently. For example, plumbers use video cameras for inspections of hidden leaks or problems, they use hydro jets, and high pressure hydraulic pumps connected to steel cables for trench-less sewer line replacement.

Flooding from excessive rain or clogged sewers may require specialized equipment, such as a heavy duty pumper truck designed to vacuum raw sewage.[citation needed]

Bacteria have been shown to live in "premises plumbing systems". The latter refers to the "pipes and fixtures within a building that transport water to taps after it is delivered by the utility".[34] Community water systems have been known for centuries to spread waterborne diseases like typhoid and cholera, however "opportunistic premises plumbing pathogens" have been recognized only more recently; Legionella pneumophila discovered in 1976, Mycobacterium avium, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa are the most commonly tracked bacteria, which people with depressed immunity can inhale or ingest and may become infected with.[35]These opportunistic pathogens can grow for example in faucets, shower heads, water heaters and along pipe walls. Reasons that favor their growth are "high surface-to-volume ratio, intermittent stagnation, low disinfectant residual, and warming cycles". A high surface-to-volume ratio, i.e. a relatively large surface area allows the bacteria to form a biofilm, which protects them from disinfection.[35]

Much of the plumbing work in populated areas is regulated by government or quasi-government agencies due to the direct impact on the public's health, safety, and welfare. Plumbing installation and repair work on residences and other buildings generally must be done according to plumbing and building codes to protect the inhabitants of the buildings and to ensure safe, quality construction to future buyers. If permits are required for work, plumbing contractors typically secure them from the authorities on behalf of home or building owners.[citation needed]

In the United Kingdom the professional body is the Chartered Institute of Plumbing and Heating Engineering (educational charity status) and it is true that the trade still remains virtually ungoverned;[36] there are no systems in place to monitor or control the activities of unqualified plumbers or those home owners who choose to undertake installation and maintenance works themselves, despite the health and safety issues which arise from such works when they are undertaken incorrectly; see Health Aspects of Plumbing (HAP) published jointly by the World Health Organization (WHO) and the World Plumbing Council (WPC).[37][38] WPC has subsequently appointed a representative to the World Health Organization to take forward various projects related to Health Aspects of Plumbing.[39]

In the United States, plumbing codes and licensing are generally controlled by state and local governments. At the national level, the Environmental Protection Agency has set guidelines about what constitutes lead-free plumbing fittings and pipes, in order to comply with the Safe Drinking Water Act.[40]

Some widely used Standards in the United States are:[citation needed]

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Plumbing - Wikipedia

In some ways, plumbing systems remain the same as they have for thousands of years: water flowing through pipes to provide our homes with clean water for drinking and bathing. That means a good plumber always needs the same skills: a set of tools and a little elbow grease. But in other ways, plumbing has evolved to meet the needs of the 21st century, with water treatment systems, water heaters, garbage disposals and other appliances now an integral part of most home plumbing systems.

Since 1987, the professionals at Doug Turner Plumbing CO. have offered the right combination of modern experience and good old-fashioned work ethics to solve all manner of plumbing and water treatment system issues throughout the Sugar Land, TX area. All of our plumbers are licensed and certified, and we provide installation, maintenance, repair, and replacement services for a wide array of plumbing systems. Call us today for services you can depend on!

Doug and Nancy Turner are hands on business owners who founded the company in 1987.

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Sugar Land, TX Plumber | Plumbing Services | Doug Turner ...

Texas Pools & Patios is your premier custom inground pool design and construction firm proudly serving Austin, San Antonio and the surrounding areas. Established in 1978, Texas Pools & Patios is one of the largest family-owned pool companies in Texas and has built a long-standing reputation for quality custom swimming pools, beautiful backyard designs and superior customer service.

Throughout the years, weve completed more than 10,000 projects in the area, including custom designed pools, pool remodels, patios, cabanas and much more. Whether you are looking for a simple pool design or an entire backyard renovation, our award-winning design team and experienced pool construction crew will work closely with you to create a beautiful space you and your family will enjoy for years to come.

Texas Pools & Patios is proud to have the City of Austin Fast Track Builder designation, which you will benefit from during the pool construction process. This co-op program through the Austin Chapter of the Association of Pool & Spa Professionals and the City of Austin allows us to expedite the permit process, ultimately shortening the length of time it takes to build your pool.

We also offer a wide range of services to best meet the complete backyard needs of our customers in addition to design and construction of custom pools, we also offer pool remodeling and repair, outdoor kitchens, patios, pool decking, landscaping, outdoor structures, custom features and much more.

The experienced staff at Texas Pools & Patios is ready to help create the backyard of your dreams. Join the many other families throughout the area who have made the choice to work with Texas Pools & Patios. Give us a call today to schedule your consultation and to learn more about how were dedicated to creating beautiful backyards.

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An outdoor enclosure can be the perfect way to enjoy al fresco living in comfort and accent your yard area. A pergola or creates a special touch to your outdoor space while serving a functional purpose. Adding a pergola or gazebo will enhance the surroundings considerably and add elegance while providing a cool, shaded refuge. A pergola can be used in gardens, patios, decks, and even pool sides. Vines can be grown over the pergola to create an especially intimate ambience. Not only are gazebos and pergolas great for entertaining, but they are also perfect for a whole variety of other outdoor activities.

When choosing gazebos or pergolas for your outdoor space, there are a few things to consider. Think about the size of the area where you'll be putting your gazebo or pergola and how large an enclosure will fit well. Do you envision a large number of your family and friends having a great time in your gazebo? Then you might want to look for as large an enclosure as you have space for. Also consider the other decor that you already have in your outdoor living space and be sure to select an enclosure in a style, material, and color that's complementary. Explore the wide selection of outdoor enclosures right here at Sam's Club to find the gazebo, pergola, or arbor that's perfect for you.

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Gazebos & Pergola Kits - Sam's Club

Mold (American English) or mould (British English) is part of the natural environment. Molds play an important part in nature by breaking down dead organic matter such as fallen leaves and dead trees; indoors, mold growth should be avoided. Molds reproduce by means of tiny spores. The spores are like seeds, but invisible to the naked eye, that float through the air. Mold may begin growing indoors when spores land on moist surfaces. There are many types of mold, but all require moisture and a food source for growth.

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Molds are ubiquitous, and mold spores are a common component of household and workplace dust. In large amounts they can be a health hazard to humans, potentially causing allergic reactions and respiratory problems.

Some molds produce mycotoxins that can pose serious health risks to humans and animals. "Toxic mold" refers to molds which produce mycotoxins, such as Stachybotrys chartarum.[1] Exposure to high levels of mycotoxins can lead to neurological problems and death. Prolonged exposure (for example, daily exposure) can be particularly harmful.

Symptoms of mold exposure may include nasal and sinus congestion; runny nose, eye irritation; itchy, red, watery eyes, respiratory problems, such as wheezing and difficulty breathing, chest tightness, cough, throat irritation, skin irritation (such as a rash), headache, and persistent sneezing.[2]

Infants may develop respiratory symptoms as a result of exposure to Penicillium, a fungal genus. Signs of mold-related respiratory problems in an infant include a persistent cough or wheeze. Increased exposure increases the probability of developing respiratory symptoms during the first year of life. Studies have indicated a correlation between the probability of developing asthma and exposure to Penicillium.[3]

Mold exposure has a variety of health effects, and sensitivity to mold varies. Exposure to mold may cause throat irritation, nasal stuffiness, eye irritation, cough and wheezing and skin irritation in some cases. Exposure to mold may heighten sensitivity, depending on the time and nature of exposure. People with chronic lung diseases are at higher risk for mold allergies, and will experience more severe reactions when exposed to mold. Damp indoor environments correlate with upper-respiratory-tract symptoms, such as coughing and wheezing in people with asthma.[4]

Molds are found everywhere, and can grow on almost any substance when moisture is present. They reproduce by spores, which are carried by air currents. When spores land on a moist surface suitable for life, they begin to grow. Mold is normally found indoors at levels which do not affect most healthy individuals.

Because common building materials are capable of sustaining mold growth and mold spores are ubiquitous, mold growth in an indoor environment is typically related to water or moisture and may be caused by incomplete drying of flooring materials (such as concrete). Flooding, leaky roofs, building-maintenance or indoor-plumbing problems can lead to interior mold growth. Water vapor commonly condenses on surfaces cooler than the moisture-laden air, enabling mold to flourish.[5] This moisture vapor passes through walls and ceilings, typically condensing during the winter in climates with a long heating season. Floors over crawl spaces and basements, without vapor barriers or with dirt floors, are mold-prone. The "doormat test" detects moisture from concrete slabs without a sub-slab vapor barrier.[6] Some materials, such as polished concrete, do not support mold growth.

Significant mold growth requires moisture and food sources and a substrate capable of sustaining growth. Common building materials, such as plywood, drywall, furring strips, carpets, and carpet padding provide food for mold. In carpet, invisible dust and cellulose are food sources. After water damage to a building, mold grows in walls and then becomes dormant until subsequent high humidity; suitable conditions reactivate mold. Mycotoxin levels are higher in buildings which have had a water incident.[7]

Mold is detectable by smell and signs of water damage on walls or ceiling, and can grow in places invisible to the human eye. It may be found behind wallpaper or paneling, on the inside of ceiling tiles, the back of drywall, or the underside of carpets or carpet padding. Piping in walls may also be a source of mold, since they may leak (causing moisture and condensation).[8]

Spores need three things to grow into mold: nutrients - cellulose (the cell wall of green plants) is a common food for indoor spores; moisture - To begin the decaying process caused by mold; time -mold growth begins from 24 hours to 10 days after the provision of growing conditions.

Mold colonies can grow inside buildings, and the chief hazard is the inhalation of mycotoxins. After a flood or major leak, mycotoxin levels are higher even after a building has dried out.[7]

Food sources for mold in buildings include cellulose-based materials such as wood, cardboard and the paper facing on drywall and organic matter such as soap, fabrics and dust-containing skin cells. If a house has mold, the moisture may originate in the basement or crawl space, a leaking roof or a leak in plumbing pipes. Insufficient ventilation may accelerate moisture buildup. Visible mold colonies may form where ventilation is poorest and on perimeter walls (because they are nearest the dew point).

If there are mold problems in a house only during certain times of the year, the house is probably too airtight or too drafty. Mold problems occur in airtight homes more frequently in the warmer months (when humidity is high inside the house, and moisture is trapped), and occur in drafty homes more frequently in the colder months (when warm air escapes from the living area and condenses). If a house is artificially humidified during the winter, this can create conditions favorable to mold. Moving air may prevent mold from growing, since it has the same desiccating effect as low humidity. Molds grow best in warm temperatures, 77 to 86F (25 to 30C), although growth may occur between 32 and 95F (0 and 35C).[9]

Removing one of the three requirements for mold reduces (or eliminates) new mold growth: moisture; food for the mold spores (for example, dust or dander); and warmth since mold generally does not grow in cold environments.

HVAC systems can produce all three requirements for mold growth. The air conditioning system creates a difference in temperature, encouraging condensation. The high rate of dusty air movement through an HVAC system may furnish ample food for mold. Since the air-conditioning system is not always running, warm conditions are the final component for mold growth.

The first step in assessment is to determine if mold is present through a mold inspection performed by a Certified Microbial Investigator. These inspections consist of visual examining the premises; moisture meter readings, tape lift samples, and indoor and outdoor air samples. If mold is actively growing and visibly confirmed, sampling for its specific species is unnecessary.[8]

Intrusive observation is sometimes needed to assess the mold level. This includes moving furniture, lifting (or removing) carpets, checking behind wallpaper or paneling, checking ventilation ductwork and exposing wall cavities. Detailed visual inspection and the recognition of moldy odors should be used to find problems. Efforts typically focus on areas where there are signs of liquid moisture or water vapor (humidity), or where moisture problems are suspected.

The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) does not generally recommend sampling unless an occupant of the space has symptoms. Sampling should be performed by a trained professional with specific experience in mold-sampling protocols, sampling methods and the interpretation of findings. It should be done only to make a particular determination, such as airborne spore concentration or identifying a particular species. Before sampling, a subsequent course of action should be determined.

In the U.S., sampling and analysis should follow the recommendations of the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), the EPA and the American Industrial Hygiene Association (AIHA).

Types of samples include air, surface, bulk, and swab. Air is the most common form of sampling to assess mold levels. Indoor and outdoor air are sampled, and their mold-spore levels compared. Air sampling often identifies hidden mold. Surface sampling measures the number of mold spores deposited on indoor surfaces, collected on tape or in dust. Bulk removal of material from the contaminated area is used to identify and quantify the mold in the sample. With swab, a cotton swab is rubbed across the area being sampled, often a measured area, and subsequently sent to the mold testing laboratory. Final results indicate mold levels and species located in suspect area.

Multiple types of sampling are recommended by the AIHA, since each has limitations; for example, air samples will not identify a hidden mold source and a tape sample cannot determine the level of contamination in the air.[10]

The first step in solving an indoor mold problem is to remove the moisture source;[11] new mold will begin to grow on moist, porous surfaces within 24 to 48 hours. There are a number of ways to prevent mold growth. Some cleaning companies specialize in fabric restoration, removing mold (and mold spores) from clothing to eliminate odor and prevent further damage to garments.

The effective way to clean mold is to use detergent solutions which physically remove mold. Many commercially available detergents marketed for mold cleanup include an EPA-approved antifungal agent.[12]

Significant mold growth may require professional mold remediation to remove the affected building materials and eradicate the source of excess moisture. In extreme cases of mold growth in buildings, it may be more cost-effective to condemn the building than to reduce mold to safe levels.[13]

The goals of remediation are to remove (or clean) contaminated materials, preventing fungi (and fungi-contaminated dust) from entering an occupied (or non-contaminated) area while protecting workers performing the abatement.[14]

The purpose of cleanup is to eliminate mold and remove contaminated materials. Killing mold with a biocide is insufficient, since chemicals and proteins causing reactions in humans remain in dead mold. The following methods are used.

Equipment used in mold remediation includes: moisture meter: measures drying of damaged materials; Humidity gauge: often paired with a thermometer; borescope: Camera at the end of a flexible snake, illuminating potential mold problems inside walls, ceilings and crawl spaces; digital camera: Documents findings during assessment; personal protective equipment (PPE): Respirators, gloves, impervious suit, and eye protection; thermographic camera: Infrared thermal-imaging cameras identify secondary moisture sources.

During mold remediation in the U.S., the level of contamination dictates the protection level for remediation workers.[16] Contamination levels have been enumerated as I, II, III, and IV:[17]

After remediation, the premises should be reevaluated to ensure success.

According to the EPA, residential mold may be prevented and controlled by cleaning and repairing roof gutters, to prevent moisture seepage into the home; keeping air-conditioning drip pans clean and drainage lines clear; monitoring indoor humidity; drying areas of moisture or condensation and removing their sources; treating exposed structural wood or wood framing with an EPA-approved fungicidal encapsulation coating after pre-cleaning (particularly homes with a crawl space, unfinished basement or a poorly-ventilated; attic).[8]

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Indoor mold - Wikipedia

Joe Kwon PhotographyClassic stone front porch idea in Chicago with a roof extensionI like this porch bed thing for just relaxing outside. Maybe sure to get it secured and everything so it can be jumped on and not even fall. - myriah_pugh

Across the front of the house, shallow steps of Savannah gray brick descent to a veranda paved in tabby, a concrete made from crushed shells and lime that has been used in the Lowcountry for centuries.Photography: Richard Leo Johnson | Atlantic ArchivesLove the brick bordering the concrete - rondorothyjensen

Richard Leo JohnsonClassic brick screened-in porch idea in Atlanta with a roof extensionMust have a hanging swing chair - webuser_6232738621830713

This is an example of a mid-sized mediterranean concrete front porch design in Other.Could be self made backyard furniture - webuser_187506459

This is an example of a small rustic porch design in Other with decking and a roof extension.Like the pits and colors - claudiahuson

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Wine Country ModernInspiration for a large modern back porch remodel in San Francisco with decking and a roof extensionNice flow to outside. Clean lines. - juliehyang

John McManusMid-sized coastal screened-in back porch idea in Other with deckingsitting area on the porch with a swing... - elisawaldman

Mountain style screened-in porch idea in OtherI LOVE LOVE LOVE the bug-free atmosphere and shade. - andreashavens

Jean AlloppThis is an example of a beach style brick screened-in porch design in Atlanta.Georgia Coastal Comfort Interior - rdculpepper

Country porch container garden idea in Los Angeles with a roof extensionPotted vase for back of house - heather930

Inspiration for a small timeless front porch remodel in Detroit with a roof extension and decking

This home was completely renovated, including an addition. It was transformed from a Colonial style to Greek Revival, which was more fitting for the neighborhood. The screened porch was added as a part of the renovation, with Greek Revival style pillars separating the screens, and durable ipe decking for a floor.Screened porch exterior style is nice. - jahnolson

Island style porch idea in Perth with deckingJust a little bit of Hobo...love!! - lanab1960

Country screened-in porch idea in Atlanta with deckingDREAMS!!!! this slash green house potting room craft space - bellmark

This is an example of a mid-sized traditional porch design in Wilmington with decking and a roof extension.wide porch, lots of windows, big columns - webuser_44583822

Large mountain style stone front porch photo in Other with a roof extensionEntrance, support truss, stone pillars - marklovesbiking

Exterior Paint Color: SW Dewy 6469Exterior Trim Color: SW Extra White 7006Furniture: Vintage fiberglassWall Sconce: Barnlight Electric CoInspiration for a mid-sized beach style concrete screened-in front porch remodel in Atlanta with a roof extensionLove the screened in porch and the ceiling - divita2802

Large classic porch idea in Atlanta with decking and a roof extensionclean and inviting. like the floor and ceiling - tinastork

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Serving the Metro Atlanta North area since 1982, Universal Services LLC has proudly provided local residents and businesses with a variety of handyman services for over 36 years.

Universal Services LLC handymen are great at performing various tasks to maintain or improve your Metro Atlanta North area home or office. From changing out of reach light bulbs, to installing or replacing your dishwasher, to repairing a broken floor board, our Norcross area handymen can quickly fix your problem.

Universal Services LLC's friendly handymen provide maintenance and repair services year round in the Metro Atlanta North area. No matter what your needs, whether a single issue, such as fixing a broken switch, or a long list of chores, a handyman from Universal Services LLC is looking forward to doing the work for you.

Why spend your nights or weekends doing chores? Hire a Universal Services LLC handyman to perform those chores and enjoy your free time! As a area handyman company, we often do jobs which people cannot or do not want to do, including ladder work, such as gutter cleaning, changing out of reach light bulbs, or even cleaning high, out of reach, areas.

Universal Services LLC's Metro Atlanta North area handymen are also skilled at carpentry, plumbing, and electrical work. Why pay a premium for a master plumber or master electrician for simple repairs such as fixing a leaky pipe or changing a fuse, outlet, or switch? Quite often Metro Atlanta North area electricians and plumbers do not want small jobs. Likewise, Universal Services LLC can build you a shed, repair siding, fix a leaky roof, or remodel a room at significant savings over Metro Atlanta North area roofers and contractors.

If you have work in the Metro Atlanta North area, that you can't or don't want to do, give Universal Services LLC a call at (770) 285-7017 and learn more about our handyman services.

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Retaining Wall Material Costs

The customer has the most control during material selection. While having a beautifully finished wall is of paramount importance, it is integral to weigh function equally with form. For example, using wood for the structure may not be the best choice if extreme moisture is a factor, as termites and wood rot may sharply decrease its lifespan. A good contractor can help choose the material with the best combination of looks and functionality, ensuring an aesthetically pleasing final product that lasts for years.

Consider that cinder block walls arent secured deep into the ground by footings. They are installed in trenches and, therefore, should not be built higher than 4 feet for stability purposes.

Modular concrete blocks are similar and provide many of the same benefits. The main difference is that modular blocks are designed in such a way that they interlock for easy, lego-like installation. The speed of installation beats that of many other materials. There are more style and color options, and homeowners can pay a little more to get close to the look of natural stone.

One of the most popular brands of modular concrete blocks is Versa-Lok. They use a pin and pin-hole interlocking system and have a broad range of styles available. With Versa-Lok, homeowners can achieve standard, weathered, cobbled, and mosaic. They are also fortified enough to build taller than with cinder blocks, at a similar material price.

Similar to cinder block, poured concrete is durable and resistant to deterioration. The pouring method makes for a solid piece of concrete which is stronger than cinder block, but much more expensive. The result of the process is a sleek, modern design.

Wooden retaining walls are a favorite for gardens because their natural appearance harmonizes with landscape surroundings. Wood materials are often cost-effective and easy to obtain, though there are several varieties which can raise your price point significantly.

The downside of using wood is that it is susceptible to rot and water damage. Drainage, waterproofing, and pest control solutions are key to the longevity of this material. With quality care, it can last beyond 20 years. As with cinder blocks, it is best not to build them taller than four feet.

Used railroad ties will have been chemically treated so it is important to find out which chemicals are present before you buy. If youre not sure about buying used materials for your project, there are a number of companies which manufacture new planks for building with the same visual appeal.

The lower cost per square foot of natural stone materials may be deceiving, as the labor rates associated with installing this material drive up your overall budget significantly. Natural stones like boulders and rocks are heavy and difficult to work with. Expect to pay a minimum of $25 per square foot for labor and materials. The hourly cost for building with dry stacking stones is $65/hr, compared to brick installation at only $15-$25/hr (see more on labor below).

This style is great in shifting environments, such as banks near the ocean. The structure can adapt and move with the soil as it shifts, rather than cracking or tumbling. This is because it is built using wire or wire mesh cages, which come at $30-$40 per cubic yard, and durable filler materials. Gabion retaining walls can be made with a variety of filler materials, from crushed concrete to stones or wood. Your cost will depend greatly on the type of filler you use. Otherwise, installation is relatively simple and affordable.

Metal, while it doesnt typically call to mind a natural landscape, can make for a long-lasting and efficient retaining wall. Common materials include Corten Steel, steel and aluminum. These materials have many benefits, including their water resistance, their proven longevity, and their strength--though steel, of course, is much stronger than aluminum. Most of them can be found in both corrugated and plate form, for your taste and aesthetic.

Using earth or chalk materials is a natural and sustainable choice, but your cost can vary greatly depending on the style and material used. Typically, compressed earth blocks and rammed earth walls are made with chalk, earth, lime or gravel and are fortified with materials like clay and sand.

Compressed earth blocks are different from rammed earth walls in the way that concrete blocks are different from poured concrete. Rammed earth is created using a framework and forms a large slab that costs around $23-$27 per square foot. Compressed earth blocks are compressed individually and can come as low as $3-$7 per square foot, or $0.50-$1.00 per block.

Both forms are strong and low-maintenance. The material is inherently vulnerable to water damage, however, and must be waterproofed in order to ensure longevity. Homeowners can opt to include reinforcements, such as rebar, and a typical earthen retaining wall will include footings or a concrete slab for added stability. The most significant price factor involves labor.

Installing railroad ties is often one of the easiest and most cost-effective choices. With material and labor, you are looking at $25-$30 per square foot. This is because they dont demand much extra material or many tools. In fact, they are a common DIY project for homeowners.

Interlocking blocks are convenient for installation, saving time, equipment, and material costs. Material and labor averages $15-$30 per square foot. Some homeowners find that they are able to construct these walls all on their own, but it would still be wise to seek the guidance of a landscape architect.

While the material estimate for rammed earth can be relatively low, labor rates can be significant. If you opt for the compressed earth blocks, the price for labor and materials will look more like that of concrete blocks at $15-$25 per square foot. With monolithic slabs of rammed earth, however, you could be looking at paying $30-$40 per square foot.

These types of retaining walls are constructed using concrete, timber or even plastic, The materials are arranged in such a way that they create cells, which are filled with stone for water passage. They do not require reinforcement, as they are a form of gravity wall which achieves stability through interlocking materials. The ease of installation, for Criblock materials, lowers labor costs.

Several different factors can drive up labor rates quickly. A wall of greater-than-average height can increase costs, and how easily the workers can access the project site will also impact the final labor quote. If a gate or fence must be taken apart or removed in order to bring materials to the site and perform the work, count on adding this time to the overall budget. In addition, labor may also be added if the dirt removed has to be disposed of somewhere other than the project property. Figure an average labor rate of $53 to $58 an hour, depending on your region.

Miscellaneous Costs

These prices include specific tools needed to perform certain work during construction or even additional materials to strengthen the wall itself. For example, soils with heavy clay content retain water much more than those low in clay. This extra water weight requires that some be constructed with additional materials, usually fabrics, that distribute the weight evenly to prevent failure. Reasonable miscellaneous costs run in the range of about a dollar per square foot.

A lack of soil testing can lead to detrimental missteps and extensive repairs. Footing that is too shallow and doesnt reach below the frost line will be susceptible to changes in the soil. An underestimation of pressure, from wet soil or weight, will make it susceptible to tilting or even collapsing. Poor construction and cheap materials make for a weak and vulnerable structure that may need to be replaced entirely.

Excavation and grading will play a large role in your cost if you need to completely replace the structure. If your current wall is made of poured concrete, for example, it is a lot more difficult to remove and will run you more in labor and equipment. The following are averages associated with each service necessary for replacement.

Pitfalls of Retaining Walls

Building a long-lasting retaining wall is vastly more complicated than simply piling up blocks and shoveling dirt. Moisture is its primary enemy, and if not properly mitigated, can lead to expensive failures. Cracks are also a common feature in walls that haven't been properly drained, due to the extra weight and temperature differences that come with moisture-soaked soils.

If it is going to be higher than average, professional help may be required. Some states require the use of an engineer during the design process if it exceeds a specific height. The overall height includes the portion that is buried in the dirt, known as the "key", which is vital to ensure the lower portion doesn't collapse and cause soil sliding. Be sure to check local building codes regarding vertical feet; if the intended wall requires hiring an engineer, count on your overall budget increasing.

Most projects don't deal with every factor that increases cost. On average, most only have two or three common factors which many contractors can easily work with.

Retaining walls can be beautiful and capable, and if done well, will last for several decades. However, with so many factors during design and construction that can lead to a poor outcome, take the time necessary to decide the size that will best suit your need, as well as which acceptable materials will last the longest. Using professional contractors and engineers as needed will ensure the perfect end result and years of reliable use from the retaining wall.

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2018 Retaining Wall Costs: Calculate Cost to Build + Block ...

Block out the sun's harmful rays with gazebos for your lounge space. Perfect for parties, outdoor events and picnics, outdoor canopies can provide the perfect place to hang out. Complete your party set up with outdoor furniture your guests will love. Dont forget to add some comfortable, shady seating under your gazebo with a new patio table. All of our patio furniture is fashionable and affordable, so you can relax in style!

Create a refreshingly shady nook in your backyard by adding a gazebo to your space. There is nothing more peaceful than having an outdoor canopy to escape to after a long day. Shop gazebos with netting to keep the insects out. They provide a great barrier between you and those pesky flies, while still being able to enjoy the outdoors. Find the perfect size and style to suit your outdoor space with our selection of gazebos and canopies.

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If your cabinet boxes are in good shape, and you are not looking to restructure your kitchen layout, you should consider cabinet refacing. We will remove the cabinet doors and drawers and replace them with new ones and match the base and crown moldings to create a completely new look. We also offer cabinet accessories, such as drawer partitions and shelving units to make all your kitchenware easy to access. Read more about why you should consider cabinet refacing.

To finish the transformation of your cabinets, TREND and Granite Transformations use premium hardware to effortlessly complete the beautiful new look your cabinets have just been given. In a matter of just days, your home or commercial space will be completely transformed with the high-end look and feel of the space youve always dreamed of. Not only do you benefit by saving time, you will also enjoy the speed of our renovation transforming your kitchen in a matter of days, not weeks all while saving money, versus the typical cost of complete cabinet replacement.

From light-and-airy to dark-and-smoky, TREND and Granite Transformations offer a wide range of refacing options. Whether you are in the market for a top-quality composite material or real wood, we have you covered. We offer a beautiful selection of solid wood, RTF (rigid thermofoil) and our Expressions lines, so you are sure to find the ideal style and color for your cabinet refacing project. Discover everything you need to know about cabinet refacing, which will help you decide if this would be a suitable option.

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