The Invisible Last Mile of Mumbai’s Lifeline – Economic and Political Weekly

Mumbais transportation scenario has traditionally been an intriguing jigsaw. The city has among the highest share of public transport usage in the world, with over 45% of commuters using the citys elaborate suburban rail network andBEST(Brihanmumbai Electric Supply and Transport) buses (MCGM2016). At the same time, Mumbai is also recognised as one among the top congested cities in the world. A study calculated that vehicle drivers spent about 65% of their time stuck in congestion and the average traffic speed during peak hours was just 18.5 kilometres per hour (kmph) (TomTom.com 2019). The city also accounts for over 400 road fatalities each year (Natu 2020). These are often attributed to the capacity constraints of public transport and infrastructural deficiencies failing to adequately fulfil the mobility needs of over 20 crore residents of the metropolis (GoI2011). While these factors are often examined through numerous studies both in academic and policy spheres, there appears to be an acute under-examination of the first- and last-mile journeys of commuters using public transport, particularly the suburban rail network and its impact on the citys transportation woes and commuter experience.

The local railway network lives up to its moniker of being the citys lifeline by transporting over 7.5 million passengers daily under extreme resource constraints (ADB2019). However, unlike the metro, an integrated first/last mile connectivity (LMC)1plan with the network is conspicuously absent at the moment. The shutting of the network because of theCOVID-19 outbreak provided a rare opportunity for the citys suburban rail planners to consider integrating theLMCcomponent in its planning with a focus on promoting sustainable modes of urban transport and enhancing commuter experience.

With the rapid expansion of metro networks across the country,LMCis gaining due attention in the role it plays in consolidating advantages of public transport alongside promoting sustainable transportation goals. The Government of Indias (GoI) Metro Policy, 2017 clearly outlines its vision onLMCin the metro system. Even in Mumbai, the focus is firmly on integratingLMCin the metro corridors.

StructuredLMCplanning could play a helpful role in limiting congestion, improving safety conditions and thereby overall commuter experience. Various options can be utilised for promoting safe pedestrian movement, shared mobility, proliferation of electric vehicles and bike sharing.LMCcould play a vital role in the twin pursuits of retaining and augmenting the sustainability gains from public transport and improving commuter experience.

Therefore, this paper engages with the subject ofLMCby furnishing an overview of the current state ofLMCfor rail passengers with the help of a survey and further assessing the importance ofLMCto suburban rail networks. Based on the discussion we also propose a way forward in integratingLMCplanning with the rail network.

Urban Transport in the Indian Context

India is undergoing rapid urbanisation and 60% of its population is expected to live in urban areas by 2050 (PTI2016). Transport is said to be the lifeblood of urban centres and thus demands futuristic planning. Under the Constitution, urban transport is included in urban development and finds a place in the state list as per the Seventh Schedule. The responsibility of urban transport planning is diffused through at least four ministries: housing and urban affairs; railways; road, transport and highways; and home affairs. As a result, the subject is often claimed to be an institutional orphan (IIHS2015).

The management and operation of urban transport also varies across Indian cities. For instance, the Bengaluru Metropolitan Transport Corporation (BMTC) which operates local buses in Bengaluru is a state government undertaking. In Mumbai, buses are operated by theBESTwhich is an autonomous body under the municipal corporation. The suburban rail services in select cities such as Mumbai are operated by different railway zones through their divisions. These zones are governed by the Ministry of Railways while the metro projects are under the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs.

Another serious problem is that limited authority is delegated at the local city level making the city administrations ill-equipped to undertake efficient planning (IIHS2015). Therefore, while the central government mandates the use of public transport, the state governments promote flyovers and bridges and the independent city development agency (wherever exists) functions without any proper policy planning (Vaidyanathan et al 2013).

Public Transport and LMC

Reports have indicated that an increase in the use of public transport could reduce growth of private vehicles and enhance road safety in general (Mohan and Tiwari 2016). A bus has a passenger car unit (PCU) of four, while a car has one. This means a bus occupies the same space of four cars when in traffic. However, a car can carry a maximum of five people, whereas buses on an average carry 50 people (Mardani et al 2015). Hence, with a four times increase in space, occupancy is increased by almost 15 times. In other words, 50 people can travel in a space occupied by only 20 people if travelling in a car, an increase of 150%. For the reduction to work, public transport has to be made an attractive option. Studies point out a few measures that can be undertaken to improve the adoption of public transport. Important among them are lowering the commuting distance in accessing public transport, making it accessible and comfortable to all sections of population such as the elderly, women, children and persons with disability, ensuring that it is affordable even to the lowest income group, and improving the quality of pedestrian and bicycle environments (Mohan and Tiwari 2016).

While experts rightly assert the importance of mass rapid transit systems (MRTS) and overall greater usage of public transport, the aspect of access and egress from public transport nodes is yet to receive the requisite attention (WRI2016; Mohan and Tiwari 2016). For instance, in the case of the Mumbai local, any further addition to this walking distance could be viewed unfavourably due to time consideration. Therefore, accessibility is seen as a key parameter to make public transport an attractive choice (Mohan and Tiwari 2016). Another dimension of accessibility is the distance to access rail or metro stations from residence or workplace. The relatively successful Delhi Metro has about 56% population living beyond one kilometre (km) from the station, while for Mumbais 11.4 km metro, this population is about 91% (Devulapalli and Howindialives2019).

Institutional Structure for LMC

Similar to the presence of multiple agencies in planning, theLMCservices are regulated by different agencies as well. Entities like taxis and rickshaws are typically governed by the state transport departments. Likewise, creating pathways for cycling and walking come under the municipal corporation, while lighting for the pathway is by the electricity service provider. A case in point is the Tansa cycle track project undertaken by the Brihanmumbai Municipal Corporation (BMC). Despite the courts getting involved, the project is still in limbo and is facing multiple issues of encroachments (Thakkar 2019). Clearly, the issue of lack of coordination, with each institution forming its own rules and procedures, eventually hinders the execution of even well-intentioned policies (Vaidyanathan et al 2013).

Mumbai Scenario

Unlike most Indian cities, Mumbais urban mobility paradigm has been actively shaped since 2002 by the World Bankfunded Mumbai Urban Transport Project (MUTP). As per the World Banks (2016) project performance assessment report, two phases of theMUTPhave been implemented with an expenditure of over`9,800, while the third phase is being implemented. These were primarily aimed at augmenting the carrying capacity of the citys suburban rail system during peak hours by financing eight and 12 car rakes and increasing the frequency of trips. However, despite modest improvements in the carrying capacity, the modal share of suburban rail has witnessed a continuous decrease in recent years. Between 2005 and 2014, the share of suburban rail in the total number of daily trips in Mumbai Metropolitan Region (MMR) decreased from 51.8% to 40.6%, while the share of private vehicles and paratransit have each doubled (MCGM2016). Lack of capacity and inefficiencies in public transport may be a significant cause, but the role of insufficient last- and first-mile connectivity needs greater examination in research and policy circles.

Improving connectivity to suburban rail networks also received insufficient attention under theMUTP. For instance, only two pedestrian-related projects were implemented under theMUTP-I, while others were dropped due to restructuring of loans (World Bank 2016). Similarly, theBMCallocated`50 crore for pedestrian-friendly infrastructure, whereas roads were allocated`1,600 crore, reflecting how planning for last mile commutes has evoked insufficient concern (Singh 2020).

Methodology

The objective of our study is to understand the last-mile commute patterns of suburban commuters in Mumbai, assess their preferences about less-patronised options and present a road map for comprehensiveLMCplanning for Mumbais railway stations.2Since the Ministry of Urban and Housing Affairs has mandated planning forLMCto be integrated with urban commuting, railways in Mumbai may also consider planning in this regard (GoI2017). Hence, this study focused on determining the current available options for railway commuters inLMCand their preferences that could potentially set up further in-depth study.

Many publicly available reports such as the Comprehensive Mobility Plan for Greater Mumbai present an overall modal share of trips (MCGM2016). According to this, 61.2% prefer public transport, 26.4% prefer private vehicles and 12.4% prefer intermediate public transport (IPT). However, most reports do not provideLMC-specific data points such as theLMCmode share or time and distance parameters in the last mile.

A study on non-motorised transport (NMT) for last mile-connectivity from Delhi Metro stations conducted by Chidambara (2016) focused on collecting information from the commuters themselves on the choice and preference of mode of transport to let the voice of commuters be known in a bottom-up approach. A similar method was ascertained to be a good fit for this study.

The other method evaluated was the case-study method. This would have entailed choosing certain stations and catchment areas surrounding it and conducting studies around that case. While this would have yielded insights on few chosen sites, it may not have fulfilled the objective of this study, namely, to explore and provide a case for railways to integrateLMCplanning (Chidambara 2019). Hence, the former survey option was preferred.

Accordingly, a survey questionnaire was designed to be administered randomly among rail commuters. However, theCOVID-19 pandemic lockdown meant that the survey had to be moved online. The survey was administered to likely rail commuters who were approached through the authors circles. Respondents were restricted to Central Railway commuters. Since the mode was online and needed to reach a large number, only basic demographic details were collected. Research has shown that with more numbers of survey fields, the response rate reduces. For instance, in surveys, a 22-field form elicits an average of 14% response rate (Byers 2016). With this in mind, the form was restricted to only 12 fields. Another factor affecting response rate could also be the reluctance in sharing personal details with unknown entities. Hence, only gender and age details were collected, thus keeping the data anonymous and focused on details related to functional aspects of the study.

Besides, mindful of the limitations of our approach, we focused on the study as an exploratory one, to understand the potential ofLMCplanning with railways. Therefore, a greater emphasis was laid on the aspects of data collection such as stations used for commute, mode, time and distance of last-mile commute, time and distance taken to reach the mode, and influencing factors behind commuters decision on mode of transport. These data points would provide useful insights on the case for planning.

Survey Findings

The survey contained 12 questions including demographic identifiers, rail station used in travel to destination, distance, time and cost of travel to destination from station, modes of transport used to reach their destination and possibility of adopting a newer sustainable mode of transport. Each question captured details of both the destinations. About 1,300 valid responses were received. Eighty-six percent of those surveyed indicated that they used the same mode ofLMCto the workplace and home, indicating a high degree of regularity inLMCusage and data validation. The results from the survey have been outlined below.

User characteristics:The users are typically commuters of the Central Railway. Either offices or residences or both are accessible by suburban rail. Among the users, the age break-up is as follows: 18% were 2130 years; 34.5% were 3140 years; 25.9% were 4150 years; and 20.8% were 5160 years. Of the respondents, 69.1% were male, 30.7% were female and 0.02% identified as third gender.

Station exit data:Due toCOVID-19, physical data collection as well as choosing railway stations to sample was not possible. However, with the online format, respondents were asked to fill in these details manually. Data was filtered to identify those stations that had a minimum of 20 mentions for both categories. Based on this, the common stations with high traffic share in both datasets could be potential sites to pilot any futureLMCmodes.

Station exit to workplace:A total of 17 stations were filtered out based on the above condition. Dadar (western and central lines), Lokmanya Tilak Terminus (LTT), Kalyan and Thane carry the highest share of exits towards workplaces (>5%). Ambarnath, Badlapur, Nerul, Dombivli, Ghatkopar, Kurla, Mulund and Tilaknagar see the next highest share of exits (2.5%5%) (Figure 2, p 41).

Station exit to residence:Similarly, exits at stations to residence were filtered under the same condition as above and 16 stations satisfied this condition. Here, a clear winner in terms of share appears to be Kalyan station (~15%), indicating that a majority of respondents are residents who are connected to the suburban system through Kalyan station. Badlapur also sees a significant amount of exits to residences (8%). The rest form less than 5% (Figure 1, p 41).

Comparing both the data sets, it could be noted that 10 stations are common in both the lists. This indicates that these stations see high traffic in both directions (to the workplace and to residence).

Status of LMC at Local Stations

Operationally, the Mumbai suburban rail network and its over 110 suburban stations are managed by two different zones of Indian Railway, namely, Central Railway and Western Railway.

The modes utilised forLMCtravel at suburban stations could be categorised as: (i) non-motorised modes (NMTs) such as walking, cycling and bicycle rentals; (ii) intermediate public transport (IPTs) such as autorickshaws and taxis; (iii) shared-ride services (shared taxis, shared autorickshaws); (iv) app-based services (taxis, cabs, buses, scooters); and (iv) private vehicles (cars, two-wheelers).

According to our survey, the share of each of these modes among respondents in travelling to workplace and to residence is given in Table 1.

It is reported that about 60% of the public transport journeys necessarily start and end as walk trips (MCGM2016). Table 1 shows a similar trend with about 48% and 24.3% commuters of the railway network walking to their workplace and residence respectively after their egress from local train stations. However, most stations are marked by the absence of walkways and adequate passenger dispersal systems to handle the high volumes of people exiting the platforms. Further, a World Bank study pointed out that traffic congestion in most Indian cities including Mumbai is due to uncongested mobility, which refers to the speed that vehicles can reach after navigating pedestrians, stray dogs and cattle (Akbar et al 2018). Therefore, ironically pedestrians also contribute to the congestion, while also endangering their own lives.

Other popular forms such as autorickshaws, taxis and, increasingly, app-based cabs form a chunk of feeder services. Our survey also indicates that over 53% of those surveyed use autorickshaws and taxis heading to their residences. It is common knowledge that these journeys are often characterised by frequent haggling, illegal denying of service to passengers, overcharging and chaotic crowding near station exits. To obviate this, some stations have earmarked space for taxi unions in liaison with regional transport office (RTO) authorities but the experiences are no better.

ThoughBESTbuses are an affordable and sustainableLMCoption for suburban stations across Mumbai, only 38%BESTbuses are used to access the suburban stations (WRI2016). This is a significant fall since 1999, when this share was as high as 59% (Singh et al 2019). Our survey also points to a dismal share ofBESTbuses being used asLMCmodes from suburban rail stations. Only about 7% use it to reach their residences and 6% use it to reach the workplace. The reasons for this decline are attributed to the low frequency ofBESTbuses at many stations (Singh et al 2019). Also, as a result of congested roads around station exits, it can take up to 45 minutes for buses to enter and exit, leading to their low patronage (WRI2016).

Our survey also indicates sizeable usage of private vehicles with 12.3% and 17.8% of commuters using their two/four wheelers while heading to their workplaces and residences respectively. Private vehicles per 1,000 persons is growing at 6.46% compound annual growth rate (MCGM2016). This growth is reflective of the preference of the public to use such options in the existing scenarios. Both the Central and Western Railway have awarded licences to intermediaries for development of pay and park sites on railway land. Data from tenders issued shows such a facility is available at a total of 69 stations, allowing passengers to park their two wheelers and cars on hourly as well as monthly basis. The licence fee from such contracts is a closely monitored source of revenue as well.

Another interesting insight from the survey is with regard to the distance between the station exit and availability of at least one of theLMCoptions.

Table 2 indicates that around 50% of the commuters walk for around 1 km3 km from the station exit to take one of theLMCoptions while travelling to their residence. Similarly, around 24% walk around 1 km3 km while travelling to the workplace. Railway premises generally necessitate an average walk around 200300 metres in order to reach the exit gate from the point of alighting (WRI2016). Needing to cover more distance to access a mode of transport for the last mile may be a major inconvenience, especially for differently-abled and elderly commuters.

In recent times, small but significant strides are being made in the direction of expandingLMCoptions. In a bid to promote shared mobility and ease commuter experience, many stations have allotted space to app-based aggregators. There is also a growing focus on providing sustainable modes of transport. For instance, the Bengaluru Railway Division partnered with a dock-less scooter company to deploy around 698 scooters at 13 railway stations (Lalitha 2019). Similarly, data from tenders issued shows that the Mumbai division of the Central Railway also awarded a tender to an app-based bus aggregator to provide last-mile connectivity from two of its prime stations, namely Kurla and Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Terminus (CSMT). Space has also been earmarked for deployment of electric three wheelers at Lokmanya Tilak Terminus (LTT).

While these are all steps in the right direction,LMCplanning at stations should be proactive in anticipating the demand, as well as broad based by linking with other public transport such as metros and buses.

Last-mile connectivity is particularly critical in the Indian context because of the way our urban centres have grown. Most of our major cities are a case of transit adjacent development (TAD) instead of transit oriented development (TOD) (Rangwala et al 2014).3,4As a result, public transport hubs and residences/workplace are often distant and lack connectivity. This aspect was brought out in our survey as well.

We found that 67% and 54% of surveys participants have their residence and workplace located beyond a 2 km distance from the station respectively (Table 3). Timewise, we found that 42.1% take more than 20 minutes to travel from residence to station which again points to the criticality of access to stations and its prospective role in choice of mode of transport (Table 4).

Another reason why public transport should actively plan forLMCoptions available from their premises is that the use of pollutingLMCmodes is likely to offset the environmental and congestion related gains of the public transport system (Mohan and Tiwari 2016). While the ridership on public transport is around 10 million each day, the lack ofLMCresults in millions opting for polluting modes of transport, which is also reflected, in part, in the increased usage ofIPTand private vehicles (MCGM2016).

Lack of end-to-end connectivity disproportionately impacts the most vulnerable users of public transport such as thedifferently-abled, elderly, women, and those with debilitating medical conditions. This restriction in mobility may adversely impact their participation in economic, social and cultural arenas. It is estimated that about one-third commuters are women and a study points out that women tend to rely on walking more than men and are often subjected to some form of harassment (Bhide et al 2016).

Finally, the growing notion of mobility as a service necessitates that public transport systems promote multi-modal integration to provide a seamless transit for commuters and lack ofLMCadversely affects the overall experience.

Way Forward

It is clear that there is a strong case for railway authorities to undertake proactive and comprehensiveLMCplanning for Mumbais suburban stations. A wide network of easily accessibleLMCoptions will also help in decongesting station premises by promoting smooth and speedy transit of passengers.

Railway must look to promote sustainable and futuristic options forLMC. The presence of over 100 suburban stations across the length of Mumbai will help it emerge as a springboard for sustainable urban transport for the entire city. A broad principle may be to prioritise non-motorised as well as shared-mobility options, especially electric and public transport (BESTand metro), over personal vehicles and conventional autos and taxis.

LMCplanning must be premised on the comprehensive examination of travel patterns at individual stations and commuters preferences. For instance, there is a huge disparity in theLMCchoices for workplaces and residences as reflected in our survey result (Table 1). Further, with change in travel behaviour anticipated in postCOVID-19 times,NMToptions such as walking and cycling are expected to gain traction, making it an opportune time to promote awareness of these modes through various nudging strategies. StructuringLMCoptions in tune with the commuter needs at stations will help in easing adoption of desiredLMCoptions.

Walking:To promote walking as a safe option forLMC, weather-protected pedestrian facilities within and outside railway premises need to be expediently ramped up in close coordination with the civic authorities. Pedestrians should be able to transit to the metro station orBESTbus stop easily and safely. As over 60% commuters walk for their last-mile commute, identifying the key destinations/sources and facilitating clear walkways will also ensure the safety of pedestrians (MCGM2016). Many countries across the world have used proliferation of pedestrian infrastructure to promote walkable linkages to public transport hubs. For instance, in Hong Kong, pedestrian corridors provide direct access to stations from the surrounding buildings to millions of residents, who can commute hassle free often even amidst heavy rainstorms and typhoons (Leong 2016).

In Mumbai, an attempt was made to work on this aspect in 2008. The state government and municipal agencies took up the project to construct skywalks from stations to the main arterial roads and to reduce the station congestion. Certain stations such as Bandra and Santa Cruz were chosen as sites for this project. Bandra was chosen to connect the station to the Bandra Kurla Complex (BKC) and Santa Cruz to connect to the Western Express Highway. However, issues such as lack of exits, inadequate security, encroachment by hawkers and wrong alignments have been cited as reasons for extreme underutilisation of these skywalks (Koppikar 2016).

Cycling:Our survey shows that about 60% of people using suburban rail have their workplace or residence within a 5 km radius and travel for about 20 minutes from the station (Tables 3 and 4). Given this, local stations are ideally positioned for aggressive promotion of bicycles or battery-operated bikes for last-mile journeys. Over the years, there has been growing evidence on the role of cycling in alleviating environmental challenges, decongesting cities and the significant health benefits associated with it (WRI2016;IIHS2015; Mohan and Tiwari 2016). TheCOVID-19 pandemic has further reaffirmed these advantages and has prodded governments across the world to promote cycling in an unprecedented manner (Bhagat 2020).

Despite the significant decline over years, aTERI(2014) study points out that cyclists account for 13%21% of the modal share in medium and small cities and 7%15% of the modal share in big cities. However, most of these are often referred to as captive cyclists as they have no choice but to cycle. Todays cyclists increasingly come from the most socially and economically disadvantaged sections of society. Further, as Joshi and Joseph (2015) point out, cyclists in India are also invisible as the policy landscape has conventionally focused on promoting motorisation through easy availability of loans and supportive infrastructure. Most major cities across the world have undertaken varying degrees of efforts to improve ease of cycling. The abandonedBKCcycling track experiment, the neglected cycle stand outside Mahim station and the inscrutable Tansa Project are clear indications that Mumbai is yet to make any significant strides in this direction (Chacko 2018; Thakkar 2017;Times of India2020).

Systematically promoting cycling as a viable option for last-mile journeys from suburban stations may be a good starting point. Creation of shaded bicycle tracks and public conveniences supported by adequate traffic-calming measures such as painted cycle lanes will require a paradigmatic shift in planning and fund allocation. A common misconception on cycling is that it is not suitable for Indian weather conditions. Here, it is pertinent to recall that theMoUD, in a 2016 report, rightly argued that the high use of motorbikes in India suggests that a large number of people already ride in the open. Incidentally, the share of two wheelers in daily trips in Mumbai has increased from 3.8% to 14.8% between2005 and 2014(MCGM2016). This is a strong cue for Mumbai to eschew traditional objections to cycling and facilitate its adoption by enabling policies and infrastructure.

Commentators such as Anjaria (2017) have also pointed that Mumbais urban form has the makings of a great cycling city due to what he refers to as the spontaneous ballet of the street. Comparing Mumbais development stage with the state of the Dutch cities in 1970 could serve as a guide for adopting cycling in Mumbai.

However, in order to widely proliferate these options, a clear and futuristic policy framework needs to be developed for allotment of space at stations for players of micro-mobility options such as fully-automated bicycle sharing schemes, dockless bike-renting options, small electric vehicles with two seats, skateboards, and mini-scooters.

Shared mobility options:Our survey indicates 53% of people use autorickshaws, taxis and personal vehicle forLMC(Table 1). There is an urgent need to effect modal shift for this segment through the promotion of shared mobility options like buses and taxi aggregators, carpooling services and electric shared mobility options. Helsinki has set an ambitious target of making private vehicles obsolete by 2025 (Greenfield 2014).

India is uniquely positioned to leapfrog personal vehicle ownership through promotion of shared mobility, as personal vehicle ownership per 1,000 people in India is presently as low as 32 as compared to 797 in the United States (NITIAayog et al 2018).

Bike taxis are a great option to augment accessibility for vulnerable groups who may not be able to operate the options on their own. The low running cost and therefore comparable prices with other options could make it an attractive option. This is a very widely-used option in many South Asian countries. Since 2004, the central government has allowed motorcycles to be used as transport vehicles for carrying one passenger riding pillion. However, Maharashtra is not among the eight states in India that have allowed bikes as public service vehicles. This option needs to be scrutinised by concerned authorities (Singh 2019).

The present focus on earmarking parking spaces at suburban stations must be gradually reassessed as it abets growth and usage of private vehicles. Shared mobility options could be given greater preference. However, shared mobility services may get pushed out for a few months because of theCOVID-19 pandemic which has created a greater preference for individual trips. However, the value proposition of shared mobility is very strong in the context of urban transport and must receive due focus (Soni 2020).

BEST as feeder buses:Streamlining access toBESTfeeder buses must also be undertaken through bus priority lanes and proper signage. Providing efficient bays and circulating areas to reduce cycle time will require prudent management of hawking activities and removal of encroachments around station exits. In close coordination withBESTauthorities, emerging solution providers such as bus aggregators could also be roped in as their sophisticated use of data analytics and consumer behaviour insights could benefit the public transport networks at large. Therefore, a strategy to earmark space for such services around stations may be developed.

Socio-economic Factors

A note of caution here would be with regard to the livelihoods dependent onIPTs. We are mindful thatIPTproviders often constitute the socially and economically vulnerable section of society. Suitable measures like making them partners in shared mobility and e-rickshaws could be worked out to involve these sections and ensure that their livelihoods are secured.

Promoting electric two-wheelers and electric shared mobility options forLMCholds promise as it will help stations emerge as electric vehicle-ready transit hubs. Railways must utilise their vast spatial presence and strategically located land across the city for facilitating an expansive charging infrastructure. This may greatly support the ongoing efforts for greater electric vehicle adoption and the railways own focus on electrification.

ATERIsurvey observed that only 29% of the women feel bike taxis are a safe mode of transport (Thakur et al 2020). This indicates how travel patterns and preferences are generally gendered andLMCinterventions should also be calibrated to remain inclusive. ATISSstudy also points to the need for a gender-sensitive approach as connecting peripheral urban areas through public transport opens up new opportunities for women to access work and education (Bhide et al 2016).

LMCplanning must also bear cognisance of the decisive influence of larger processes of suburbanisation and gentrification. For instance, the famed mills of Lower Parel areas have been actively utilised for commercial and residential purposes over the last few decades (Harris 2008). This socio-spatial transformation has made stations like Parel amenable to introduction of non-motorised options.Similarly, most stations of the Mumbaisuburban rail network have multiple exits with divergent surrounding areas and thus different sections of society accessing thestation from each direction. There are large slum establishments inclose vicinity of the west side of stations like Govandi, Chembur, Mankhurd which require streamlining pedestrian movement as lack of it also cause many trespassing deaths. The east side of these stations leading to residential complexes may be amenable for introduction of shared bike options. Therefore, planning should be done to address the specific requirements and awareness must be created among passengers through proper signage, announcements and promotional campaigns.

In adopting any of these modes, ensuring safety will be a key enabler as the Road Accidents in India report points out that 36.5% of all road mortalities in India are on two-wheelers (GoI2018). Even our survey points out that 40% of respondents give safety as the first preference while choosing a transport option, while saving time and easy availability of options at the stations are second and third in priority for commuters.

Conclusions

From the above discussion, we have attempted to show the potential of an integratedLMCplanning with railways and its importance to the citys urban transport at large. We fully recognise the inherent polycentricity in transportation and that the railways is just one stakeholder. Cooperation with other agencies will be critical for the success of most of these suggestions such as development of bus bays, pedestrian walkways and cycling infrastructure. Well-researched solutions are available to these issues, some of which have been published in this very publication (Vaidyanathan and Rathi 2018).

The Avoid-Shift-Improve (A-S-I) framework could be a useful tool for the various agencies from civic administration to transport unions which are involved in mobility planning (Bongardt et al 2019). The avoid aspect must lay focus on minimising the use of motorised transport in the last-mile commute. As pointed above, there should be concerted efforts to facilitate a shift to buses or metros, non-motorised and shared mobility options for journeys from stations. Finally, the existing under-equipped facilities for pedestrians and bus or metro users must improve through structured interventions.

It must be stated that many of these interventions will require radical change in widely-held perceptions about urban transport in India and the behavioural patterns of commuters. There is a pressing need for a shift, from seeing streets as spaces to operate cars to viewing them as spaces for people; a revaluation of cycling from a mode of transportation to a better alternative to walking; and a rethinking of the bicycle as a vehicle for exercise or fitness to one that is a mobility device (Joshi and Joseph 2015).

Many emerging mobility options discussed above will also require the Indian Railways to frame suitable policies. In September 2019, the Ministry of Railways came out with a comprehensive policy for promoting plastic bottle crushing machines at railway stations which points to how the railways are rightfully donning a more expansive and responsible mantle in recent times (NIE2019). With structured policies, we believe that railways can add immense value in encouraging sustainable modes by promoting non-motorised transport and shared mobility forLMC. Its vast station network across the city could be utilised to provide infrastructure for overall sustainable urban mobility. This could potentially result in nudging people to adopt sustainable modes.

Overall, the existing scenario provides a definitive opportunity for stations to emerge truly as nodes of connectivity. Its spin-off effects may include improved safety, less congestion, and introduction of sustainable modes of transport across the city. However, we are conscious of the infrastructural constraints that could dampen this effort. These could be explored further to understand the various aspects and provide solutions therein. While these are the major takeaways of our survey, we hope that this work inspires future studies along this line of inquiry. Increased solution-focused research directed to policymakers can help in faster adoption and execution. Adopting futuristic urban mobility options and according primacy to commuter needs in addressing the existingLMCvacuum is bound to give a new lease of life to the 170-year-old lifeline of Mumbai.

Notes

1 The origin and history of the term last-mile lack adequate documentation. However, it has seen diverse usages over the course of time. In a namesake Broadway play and movie of the 1930s, it denoted final tribulations of an incarcerated person on death row. The Last Long Mile is a famous World War I poem about exceptional hardships endured by the US soldiers.

In more recent times, the term has been extensively used in the telecommunication industry to denote the final leg of the networks that deliver services to customers. In logistics, last-mile connectivity refers to the final step of the delivery process from a distribution centre or facility to the end-user.

Similarly, in the public transit parlance, last-mile or first and last-mile connection is used to describe the beginning or end of an individual trip made primarily by public transportation.

2 A map of the Mumbai suburban rail system is included in the Annexure Figure 1 (p 46).

3 Transit oriented development (TOD) is the creation of compact, walkable, pedestrian-oriented, mixed-use communities centred around high quality train systems. This makes it possible to live a lower-stress life without complete dependence on a car for mobility and survival (http://www.tod.org/).

4 When TOD is not implemented effectively, a community can experience what is referred to as transit adjacent development (TAD). This kind of development typically has several attributes of TOD, but also has been compromised in key ways. For instance, a common TAD trait is when a station area is designed with some dense components, but the station area is dominated by a commuter parking lot adjacent to the station. This sort of configuration favours the automobile commuter over the transit user resulting in a very low level of activity or interest in the station area throughout the day (Stantec 2013).

References

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The Invisible Last Mile of Mumbai's Lifeline - Economic and Political Weekly