We are known as one of the finest professional window replacement companies in the area, entrusted by some of the premier manufacturers to deliver on their brand pledge. Our installers are highly-skilled in providing seamless project services from start-to-finish.

Their skills, along with our knowledge of the industry and ability to expertly fit homes of all architectural styles, shapes and sizes, helps set us apart from our competitors. Whether you are upgrading your existing home, or building a new home, you can call on us for:

Call RNL Windows for solutions that can increase the value and appearance of your home.

When upgrading or renovating your existing home, energy-efficient window replacement can significantly lower your household energy costs and carbon footprint while maintaining a consistently comfortable home temperature.

We are residential window installation contractors with highly-trained installers offering a broad selection of window styles, types and trends in high-quality constructions to increase the value and beauty of your home. While selection and design appeal are important, proper installation is an essential element to help ensure proper performance.

We have built a strong reputation for solid performing quality installations by focusing on details such as:

Whether your requirements are for a new construction or an upgrade, your satisfaction, safety and comfort are vitally important to us. Call today to get your project underway!

We work with some of the premier window and door manufacturers to bring superb craftsmanship, performance, beautiful appearance and value that every customer should expect for their home.

And for those who refuse to settle for anything less than exceptional, we provide a precise residential window installation by highly-qualified technicians to help reduce your monthly energy costs, increase curb appeal, and improve the security of your home. These are added reasons to come to us:

Call RNL Windows today to choose from premium quality materials, styles and designs with superior installation performance to complement your home. 206-255-8662

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Window Replacement Everett WA | Window Installation ...

Although there is an actual steam cleaning industrial process, in the context of carpet cleaning, "steam cleaning" is, in fact, hot water soil extraction cleaning, which is professionally known as HWE. The hot water soil extraction cleaning method uses equipment that sprays heated water, sometimes with added cleaning chemicals, on the carpet. Simultaneously, the water is vacuumed up, along with any dislodged and dissolved dirt. Many carpet manufacturers recommend professional hot water extraction as the most effective carpet cleaning method which also provides a deeper clean.[citation needed] Actual steam could damage man-made carpet fibers and change the characteristics as they are usually set using heat. Natural fiber carpets such as wool can shrink, velvet-piled carpets and Berber carpets will become fuzzy which is known as pile burst.[citation needed]

Hot water extraction equipment may be a portable unit that plugs into an electrical outlet, or a truck mount carpet cleaner requiring long hoses from the truck or trailer. Truck-mounted equipment may be used where electricity is unavailable, but may be unsuited to premises distant from a driveway or road, and require hoses to pass through windows to reach the upper floors of a building. The hoses needed for truck-mount and professional portable carpet cleaning may present a trip hazard, and allow pets or children to escape through doors left ajar. Heated or air conditioned air can also be wasted when doors are left open for hoses. Truck-mounted carpet cleaning equipment minimizes the noise in the room being cleaned, but may cause noise and air pollution offensive to neighbors, and could violate anti-idling bylaws in some jurisdictions. However, truck-mounted cleaning is much faster than portable equipment, and the extra heat will dissolve more spots and stains, and more vacuum suction power will reduce drying times.

A common process of hot water extraction begins with preconditioning. Alkaline agents such as ammonia solution for synthetic carpets, or acidic solution (such as vinegar solution) for woollen carpets, are sprayed into the carpet, then agitated with a grooming brush or an automatic scrubbing machine. Next, a pressurized manual or automatic cleaning tool (known as a wand) passes over the surface to rinse out all pre-conditioner, residue, and particulates. If an alkaline detergent is used on a woollen carpet, use of a mild acetic acid solution will restore neutral fiber pH. The acidic rinse thus neutralizes the alkaline residues, and can contribute to softening cleaned fabrics.

The hot water extraction method is the preferred method of many carpet manufacturers as it removes more dust and abrasive particles resulting in less wear and pile abrasion.[citation needed]

Extraction is, by far, the most important step in the hot water extraction process. Since the hot-water extraction method uses much more water than other methods like bonnet or shampoo cleaning, proper extraction and air flow are critical to avoid drying issues such as mold growth & browning of wool fibres. Drying time may also be decreased by extra use of fans, de-humidifiers, and/or outdoor ventilation.

Older surfaces, such as double jute-backed carpets and loose rugs with natural foundation yarns, could shrink after a wet treatment, leading to suppositions that wet-cleaning could also remove wrinkles.[citation needed] However, this notion is antiquated and this method could also occasionally tear seams or uproot strips.[citation needed] Newer carpets, such as with synthetic backing and foundation yarns, do not shrink, and they smooth easily; in such carpets, wrinkles indicate an underlying problem, such as delamination where the secondary backing becomes unstuck from the primary backing, that may need a certified carpet inspector to determine.

Wet-cleaning systems naturally require drying time, which may lead to concerns about very slow drying, the risk of soiling returning during drying as the moisture evaporates bringing the soils from deeper within the pile to the surface, as well as odors, bacteria, fungi, molds, and mildews. Carpet cleaning specialists try to find a balance between rapid drying (attributable to lower flow rate through the cleaning jets of a spray system) and the need to remove the most soil (attributable to higher flow rate).

Pretreatments similar to those in dry-cleaning and "very low moisture" systems are employed, but require a longer dwell time of 15 to 20 minutes, because of lower amounts of carpet agitation. Ideal pretreatments should rinse easily and leave dry, powdery, or crystalline residue that can be flushed without contributing to re-soiling.

Many dry carpet-cleaning systems rely on specialized machines. These systems are mostly "very low moisture" (VLM) systems, relying on dry compounds complemented by application cleaning solutions, and are growing significantly in market share due in part to their very rapid drying time, a significant factor for 24-hour commercial installations. Dry-cleaning and "very low moisture" systems are also often faster and less labor-intensive than wet-extraction systems.

Heavily soiled areas require the application of manual spotting, pretreatments, preconditioners, and/or "traffic-lane cleaners", (commonly sprayed onto carpet prior to the primary use of the dry-cleaning system) which are detergents or emulsifiers which break the binding of different soils to carpet fibers over a short period of time. For example, one chemical may dissolve the greasy films that bind soils to the carpet, and thus prevent effective soil removal through vacuuming. The solution may add a solvent like d-limonene, petroleum byproducts, glycol ethers, or butyl agents. The amount of time the pretreatment dwells in the carpet should be less than 15 minutes, due to the thorough carpet brushing common to these "very low moisture" systems, which provides added agitation to ensure the pretreatment works fully through the carpet. The benefit of dry carpet cleaning, over wet solutions, is that dry chemical compounds don't attract dirt, like dried shampoo.[citation needed] While dry carpet cleaning is more expensive and more time consuming to clean than bonnet or extraction, dry cleaning formulas put less stress on the carpets themselves.[citation needed]

A 98% biodegradable or others,[1] slightly moist absorbent cleaning compound may be spread evenly over carpet and brushed or scrubbed in. For small areas, a household hand brush can work such a compound into carpet pile; working like "tiny sponges", the attracted cleaning solution dissolve dirt, dirt and grime is attracted/absorbed to the compound, after a short drying time (the cleaning solution which is attracted to the compound must evaporate), it will be removed with a vacuum cleaner, the drier the better, leaving carpet immediately clean and dry. But it's very difficult to remove all residues, the residues can cause allergies and biological compounds may cause discolourations on carpets. For commercial applications, a specially designed cylindrical counter-rotating brushing system is used, without a vacuum cleaner. Machine scrubbing is more typical, in that hand scrubbing generally cleans only the top third of carpet.

In the 1990s, new polymers began literally encapsulating (crystallizing) soil particles into dry residues on contact.[2] In the conventional cleaning process surfactant molecules attach themselves to oily soil particles, suspending them (emulsification) so that they can be easily rinsed away. Surfactant (detergent) molecules and emulsified soils which escape being rinsed away, remain in the fibre and continue to attract soiling, causing the condition of the carpet to degenerate; often re-soiling faster than before it was subjected to the cleaning process. Encapsulators are speciality detergent polymers which become part of the detergent system. As drying occurs (20-30 min. drytime), after cleaning, these encapsulators bind the detergent molecules and residual soils in a brittle, crystalline structure.[1] Detergent and soil particles can no longer attract other soils and are easily removed by dry vacuuming. In addition to binding the detergent and soil residues the encapsulation chemistry coats the clean fibre with the same brittle film. This reduces the fibres affinity for oily and particulate soils. As this brittle film"breaks away" and more soil is removed, the appearance of the fibre improves as opposed to soiling more rapidly. Products which also employ fluorochemical technology, display dramatically extended anti re-soiling time periods. Cleaning solution is applied by rotary machine, brush applicator, or compression sprayer. Dry residue is vacuumable immediately (20-30 min. drytime), either separately or from a built-in unit of the cleaning-system machine.

After a cleaning product is deposited onto the surface as mist, a round buffer or "bonnet" scrubs the mixture with a rotating motion. This industry machine resembles a floor buffer, with an absorbent spin or oscillating pad that attracts soil and is rinsed or replaced repeatedly. The bonnet method is not strictly dry-cleaning.

To reduce pile distortion, the absorbent bonnet should be kept well-lubricated with cleaning solution. It is not recommended to dunk the bonnet in a bucket of cleaning solution and then wring it out with a mop-bucket wringer, as this will make the bonnet too wet. It is important to change or turn the bonnet early, as bonnets can become filled with soil in just a few hundred square feet. Once loaded with soil, the bonnet will not hold any more; instead, it simply moves the soil from one area to another. An overly wet bonnet also deposits residues that attract soils when they are dry, creating the need to clean more often. It is recommended for robust and not for high floor carpet, it swirls the floor. It distorts pile and grinds dirt deeper in carpet fiber, and also has an abrasive effect.[3]

When there is a large amount of foreign material in the carpet, extraction with a wet process may be needed. Normally, the spin-bonnet method may not be as capable of sanitizing carpet fibers due to the lack of hot water, for this a special thermo machine is needed, here the buffing machine is equipped with a heating, to heat up the bonnet, but a post-cleaning application of an antimicrobial agent is used to make up for this. A small amount of water is required with spin-bonnet carpet cleaning. It only cleans the top of the carpet 1/8 inch but it is very fast for wide areas. However, bonnet cleaning is not the best mechanism for completely removing the chemical that is pre-sprayed onto a carpet. It is recommended that only surfactant free or encapsulating products are used.

Wet shampoo cleaning with rotary machines, followed by thorough wet vacuuming, was widespread until about the 1970s, but industry perception of shampoo cleaning changed with the advent of encapsulation. Hot-water extraction, also regarded as preferable by all manufacturers, had not been introduced either. Wet shampoos were once formulated from coconut oil soaps; wet shampoo residues can be foamy or sticky, and steam cleaning often reveals dirt unextracted by shampoos. Since no rinse is performed, the powerful residue can continue to collect dirt after cleaning, leading to the misconception that carpet cleaning can lead to the carpet getting "dirtier faster" after the cleaning.[2] The best method is truckmounted hot water extraction. When wet-shampoo chemistry standards converted from coconut oil soaps to synthetic detergents as a base, the shampoos dried to a powder, and loosened dirt would attach to the powder components, requiring vacuuming by the consumer the day after cleaning.

Dry foam cleaning[4] involves applying a cleaning foam blanket to the surface area of a carpet immediately after a dry clean. The foam is left to stand for 10 minutes to allow chemical agents to affect the carpet. This method is typically used to remove grease from the surface; some foams have color brighteners, protectants and anti-soiling agents. It is not a completely dry method since the foam is 90% air and 10% liquid. A dry foam machine consists of a pressure tank in which a solution of water and shampoo is added. This method is used for water-sensitive carpets, needle felt, and other carpet types whose construction inhibits sufficient water extraction.

Vacuum washing[5] employs a washhead that sprays water without detergent and immediately removes it by suction, creating a swirl of water. This ensures high cleaning performance, extracting the dirt from the carpet to a depth of half an inch. By immediately reabsorbing the wash water, the drying time is greatly shortened. This method is suitable for intermediate and basic cleaning. Because it does not require cleaning products, it leaves no detergent residue. Vacuum washing has long been in use in Europe, mostly in larger train and bus companies, schools, and historic preservation. The system works on all surfaces which are water resistant (carpet, upholstered furniture, wooden floors, stone, plastics). A great advantage is that this system works without brushes or pads so there is no abrasion on the pile.

Other household carpet-cleaning processes are much older than industry standardization, and have varying degrees of effectiveness as supplements to the more thorough cleaning methods accepted in the industry.

Vacuum cleaners use air pumps to create partial vacuums to suck up dust and dirt, usually from floors and carpets. Filtering systems or cyclones collect dirt for later disposal but don't necessarily improve the machines ability to remove dirt from the surface being cleaned. Modern carpet cleaning equipment use rotary vacuum heads and spray jets to deep clean the carpet through hundreds of multi-directional cleaning passes. Some add steam and agitation. Models include upright (dirty-air and clean-air), canister and backpack, wet-dry and pneumatic, and other varieties. Robotic vacuum cleaners have recently become available.

Tea leaves and cut grass were formerly common for floor cleaning, to collect dust from carpets, albeit with risks of stains. Ink was removed with lemon or with oxalic acid and hartshorn; oil with white bread or with pipe clay; grease fats with turpentine; ox gall and naphtha were also general cleaners. Ammonia and chloroform were recommended for acid discoloration. Benzine and alum were suggested for removing insects;[6] diatomaceous earth and material similar to cat litter are still common for removing infestations. Candle wax is removed by placing a towel over the affected carpet area and applying steam from a clothes iron until the wax absorbs into the towel. Some traditional methods of stain removal remain successful and ecological. Caution should be used when treating natural fibers such as wool.

The longer the stain material remains in the carpet, the higher the chance of permanent color change, even if all the original stain material is removed.[6] At times pets urinate on the carpet and this results in a bad odor especially when it is hot and humid.The carpet or rug is usually taken outside and immersed in water to remove such stains. Immediately blotting (not rubbing) the stain material as soon as possible will help reduce the chances of permanent color change. Artificial food coloring stains are generally considered permanent stains. These may be removed by professional cleaners or deep cleaning rental machines with heat-transfer stain-reducing chemicals, but carry risks of burning the carpet. Stain removal products can be combined with anti-allergen treatments to kill house dust mites.

Carpet rods, rattan rugbeaters, and carpet-beating machines for beating out dust, and also brooms, brushes, dustpans, and shaking and hanging were all carpet-cleaning methods of the 19th century; brooms particularly carry risks of wear.[6]

Excerpt from:
Carpet cleaning - Wikipedia

Modernistic is Michigans Carpet Cleaning Expert!

Our IICRC certified, carpet cleaning technicians use the best, professionally manufactured products, recognized worldwide, partnered with state of the art equipment and the very best cleaning method, truck-mounted hot water extraction. Hot water extraction, otherwise known as the steam cleaning method, is the #1 rated carpet cleaning method recommended by all of the major carpet manufacturing companies.

When you hire Modernistic, we bring a $50k truck-mounted unit to your home or business. Our cleaning unit runs directly off the vans V8 engine, providing 20x the power of a typical portable machine. The vacuum systems suction is strong enough to lift a bowling ball, providing the most thorough clean to every inch of your carpet fiber all the way down to the carpet backing!

For over 40 years, Modernistic has been dedicated to restoring the health of your home and business and to delighting our customers! Our 100% satisfaction guarantee comes with every service we perform.

Our IICRC trained and certified technicians will arriveat your home or business in a clearly marked Modernistic company van, wearing a Modernistic company uniform and a visible ID badge. Before they begin the cleaning, they willask for a walk through of the areas being cleaned,so they cannote any areas of concern you may have.

Modernistic uses proven methods that are recommended by carpet manufacturing companies to ensure safe cleaning and the integrity of your carpet warranty. We guarantee to give your carpet the deepest clean possible usingCRI Gold Rated,truck-mounted hot water extractionand advanced cleaning solutions. Our technicians use a proven step-by-step process to eliminate dirt, spots, and odors completely, and will utilize special tools that reach in, around and under, large furnishings and electronics, to ensure complete cleaning coverage. Following the cleaning, your carpet will only be damp to the touch. OurHWEcleaning method is so powerful that95% of the moisturewe use is extracted right back out while we are cleaning. While dry time can vary based on thetemperature and humidity in your home, as well as the outside weather and your heating and cooling system, the standard dry time is6-8 hours, but in some instances can take up to 12 hours.

Modernistic puts the service in service company! Our IICRC certified technicians are experts in the industry, dedicated to their craft and committed to providing you with an exceptional carpet cleaning experience. Our team specializes in spot removal, odor removal, pet-affected areas, and more! We also offer 3M Scotchgard carpet protection, an Anti-Allergen Treatment, and a variety of deodorizers. You can see our work by checkingout thebefore and after photostaken by our service technicians in the field. You will quickly see that we can handle just about anything! When youre ready, scheduling your residential carpet cleaning appointment has never been easier: simply use our online scheduling tool.

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Modernistic | Michigan Carpet Cleaning

Sprinkler System Cost

The cost of a sprinkler system for a typical 1/4 acre residential lawn is $2,426. The overall system installation cost can range between $1,760 and $3,347 depending on the size of the area needing coverage and quality of the sprinkler system and its materials.

Spring will be here sooner than most homeowners realize. This means the seasons of watering the lawn and garden will soon be upon us! One of the top home renovations to consider as spring approaches is installing a sprinkler system. Many homeowners may avoid adding this feature to their home though, simply due to the cost. Here we want to discuss how much it really costs to install a sprinkler system, and all the steps necessary to start this project.

Each year Americans spend over 6 billion dollars to ensure that their lawn is greener than anyone else on the block, according to The Lawn Institute. Is it any wonder, considering a nice lawn not only adds curb appeal to your home, but also reduces your carbon footprint. A healthy, green lawn increases air quality, helps purify water runoff, and the average lawn has as much of a cooling effect as 8.5 tons of air conditioning!

For this reason, taking care of your lawn is one of the most important things you can do as a homeowner. Maintaining nice, green grass is a lot of work though. The solution? Installing a sprinkler system.

Most homeowners spend between $1,760 and $3,347 to have a sprinkler system installed, with the average cost being $2,462.

Factors to consider:

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In order to fully understand the cost of a sprinkler system, it is necessary to explain how all the components work together to water your lawn.

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When you decide to install a sprinkler system in your yard you will want to first determine the different zones which need watering. Some zones may require more water than others, or need to be watered at certain times of the day. These zones can include:

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After determining the different zones of your yard, you are ready to establish a plan for the sprinkler system installation.

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While adding a sprinkler system to your yard is an excellent way to maintain a beautiful lawn and garden, there are a couple other factors to consider.

Ultimately, installing a sprinkler system in your yard is one of the best ways to create a landscape full of lush, green grass and a healthy garden. Sprinkler systems also conserve water since you are in full control of the distribution of the water and length of time that the sprinklers are watering.

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2018 Sprinkler System Installation Costs | Irrigation Costs

Steps // How to Hang Drywall

1Hanging Drywall Overview

Step One // How to Hang Drywall

Illustration by Gregory Nemec

Despite their drab, if-youve-seen-one-youve-seen-them-all appearance, these flat sandwiches of gypsum plaster and recycled newsprint come in a variety of types and sizes to suit the specific demands of a job. There are 14-inch-thick flexible panels to cover a curved wall or ceiling and 58-inch-thick abuse-resistant panels that are less likely to develop holes or dents. Greenboard keeps its integrity in the face of high humidity, making it a good choice for bathrooms. Type X resists fire, making it well-suited to furnace rooms and between-floor chases. Massachusetts contractor Paul Landry often installs blueboard, so-called because of its indigo paper. It bonds tenaciously with veneer plaster, a finish much in demand in Landrys area. The light-gray product known as drywall is the type in widest use.

When butted end-to-end, its factory-beveled lengthwise edges form a shallow swale for a topping of joint compound and tape. Half-inch is the preferred thickness for walls and ceilings; 58-inch works best if studs or joists are 24 inches apart, where thinner drywall would sag. The sheets most commonly available in hardware stores measure 4 by 8 feet, but lengths can reach up to 16 feet and widths up to 54 inches, which speeds the installation and minimizes the number of seams. Bigger panels have their downside, however: Theyre heavy and unwieldy. A 12-foot sheet of -inch drywall weighs about 80 pounds, nearly 30 pounds more than a standard 8-foot panel. Thats why manufacturers have developed 38-inch thick gypsum panels that weighs 16 percent less than standard sheets. These, however, are used only to cover existing drywall.

PLANNING AHEAD

2Measure and cut drywall for the ceiling

Step Two // How to Hang Drywall

4Using rotary cut-out tool

Step Four // How to Hang Drywall

6Trim around doors and windows

Step Six // How to Hang Drywall

7Make inside and outside corners

Step Seven // How to Hang Drywall

8How to keep studs in line

Step Eight // How to Hang Drywall

Illustration by Gregory Nemec

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How to Hang Drywall | Drywalling Tips | This Old House

Master bathroom suite Remodel

If youve been dying for a bathroom that is as grand as you are, but are worried that remodeling a master bathroom suite is too cumbersome of a task, cast your fears asidewe can show you exactly how we can transform your old bathroom into one suited for royalty. Adding a master bathroom can truly be life-changing for parents who previously shared a bathroom with the rest of the family.

Whether you want expansive his and her counters, a large walk-in steam shower, a tub that functions as a serious retreat, or a room with a view (or all of the above), were ready to get to work. From glass block windows for privacy, claw foot tubs for a touch of elegance, or even subway tile and brick for a rustic modern look, we can help.

Since guests primarily use powder rooms, creating a powder room that will wow those that you invite into your homewhile still remaining practicalis the goal. Powder rooms, sometimes called half bathrooms or guest bathrooms, are typically quite small. So remodeling to add a new powder room without taking up too much of your private living space is definitely possible.

Coat closets, expansive entryways, and borrowed space from adjoining rooms are all common practices when you need to add a guest bathroom. Let our bathroom remodeling team show you layout options based upon your floor plan.

Jack and Jill bathrooms are childrens bathrooms that are often used by two or more children with adjoining rooms. Because children grow, our design specialists will work with you to create a bathroom that evolves as your children agethink transitioning toilets (a toilet with a seat that can be changed as the child moves beyond potty training), graduated step-down basins for the tub, non-slip surfaces, and towel hooks that can later be replaced with towel bars.

The best part of creating a jack and jill bathroom is that both children have easy access to the bathroom for nighttime trips, and both can enjoy their own bathroom sink and preparation area. We can design and add a new jack and jill bathroom between your childrens existing bedrooms, or remodel your current jack and jill bathroom for your growing childrens needs.

A full bathroom is a great addition to the master bedroom or a guest bedroom within your home, and can be used by your children or your visitors. Because the full bathroom in your home is probably going to get a lot of traffic, designing one thats as functional and durable as it is beautiful is important. If youre thinking of adding a half bathroom or powder room for guests, weight the cost and benefits of adding a full bathroom or three quarter bathroom as well. While it might not seem necessary now, adding a full or three quarter bathroom to your home and can be completed with only slightly more square footage if you choose a standup shower instead of a tub.

A three quarter bathroom is one of the more unique bathroom designs, and refers to a bathroom that has a toilet, a sink, and a shower, but does not have a tub. These bathrooms are most commonly ideal for guests or as a second bathroom, and are often found in home additions, in-law suites, or basements.

Choosing the type of bathroom that you want for your home is just the beginning of the design process. Once you know the layout of your dream bathroom, well get to work on helping you determine the style. Some of our most popular bathroom styles include:

The bathroom style that you choose is entirely up to you, and were happy to answer all of your questions about each style type, and which one we think would work best with your current living space.

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Bathroom Remodeling Houston - Unique Builders Texas ...

Plumbing is any system that conveys fluids for a wide range of applications. Plumbing uses pipes, valves, plumbing fixtures, tanks, and other apparatuses to convey fluids.[1] Heating and cooling (HVAC), waste removal, and potable water delivery are among the most common uses for plumbing, but it is not limited to these applications.[2] The word derives from the Latin for lead, plumbum, as the first effective pipes used in the Roman era were lead pipes.[3]

In the developed world, plumbing infrastructure is critical to public health and sanitation.[4][5] Boilermakers and pipefitters are not plumbers, although they work with piping as part of their trade, but their work can include some plumbing.

Plumbing originated during ancient civilizations such as the Greek, Roman, Persian, Indian, and Chinese cities as they developed public baths and needed to provide potable water and wastewater removal, for larger numbers of people.[6] Standardized earthen plumbing pipes with broad flanges making use of asphalt for preventing leakages appeared in the urban settlements of the Indus Valley Civilization by 2700 BC.[7] The Romans used lead pipe inscriptions to prevent water theft.The word "plumber" dates from the Roman Empire.[8] The Latin for lead is plumbum. Roman roofs used lead in conduits and drain pipes[9] and some were also covered with lead, lead was also used for piping and for making baths.[10]

Plumbing reached its early apex in ancient Rome, which saw the introduction of expansive systems of aqueducts, tile wastewater removal, and widespread use of lead pipes. With the Fall of Rome both water supply and sanitation stagnatedor regressedfor well over 1,000 years. Improvement was very slow, with little effective progress made until the growth of modern densely populated cities in the 1800s. During this period, public health authorities began pressing for better waste disposal systems to be installed, to prevent or control epidemics of disease. Earlier, the waste disposal system had merely consisted of collecting waste and dumping it on the ground or into a river. Eventually the development of separate, underground water and sewage systems eliminated open sewage ditches and cesspools.

Most large cities today pipe solid wastes to sewage treatment plants in order to separate and partially purify the water, before emptying into streams or other bodies of water. For potable water use, galvanized iron piping was commonplace in the United States from the late 1800s until around 1960. After that period, copper piping took over, first soft copper with flared fittings, then with rigid copper tubing utilizing soldered fittings.

The use of lead for potable water declined sharply after World War II because of increased awareness of the dangers of lead poisoning. At this time, copper piping was introduced as a better and safer alternative to lead pipes.[11]

The major categories of plumbing systems or subsystems are:[12]

A water pipe is a pipe or tube, frequently made of plastic or metal,[a] that carries pressurized and treated fresh water to a building (as part of a municipal water system), as well as inside the building.

For many centuries, lead was the favoured material for water pipes, because its malleability made it practical to work into the desired shape. (Such use was so common that the word "plumbing" derives from plumbum, the Latin word for lead.) This was a source of lead-related health problems in the years before the health hazards of ingesting lead were fully understood; among these were stillbirths and high rates of infant mortality. Lead water pipes were still widely used in the early 20th century, and remain in many households. In addition, lead-tin alloy solder was commonly used to join copper pipes, but modern practice uses tin-antimony alloy solder instead, in order to eliminate lead hazards.[13]

Despite the Romans' common use of lead pipes, their aqueducts rarely poisoned people. Unlike other parts of the world where lead pipes cause poisoning, the Roman water had so much calcium in it that a layer of plaque prevented the water contacting the lead itself. What often causes confusion is the large amount of evidence of widespread lead poisoning, particularly amongst those who would have had easy access to piped water.[14] This was an unfortunate result of lead being used in cookware and as an additive to processed food and drink, for example as a preservative in wine.[15] Roman lead pipe inscriptions provided information on the owner to prevent water theft.

Wooden pipes were used in London and elsewhere during the 16th and 17th centuries. The pipes were hollowed-out logs, which were tapered at the end with a small hole in which the water would pass through.[16] The multiple pipes were then sealed together with hot animal fat. They were often used in Montreal and Boston in the 1800s, and built-up wooden tubes were widely used in the USA during the 20th century. These pipes, used in place of corrugated iron or reinforced concrete pipes, were made of sections cut from short lengths of wood. Locking of adjacent rings with hardwood dowel pins produced a flexible structure. About 100,000 feet of these wooden pipes were installed during WW2 in drainage culverts, storm sewers and conduits, under highways and at army camps, naval stations, airfields and ordnance plants.

Cast iron and ductile iron pipe was long a lower-cost alternative to copper, before the advent of durable plastic materials but special non-conductive fittings must be used where transitions are to be made to other metallic pipes, except for terminal fittings, in order to avoid corrosion owing to electrochemical reactions between dissimilar metals (see galvanic cell).[17]

Bronze fittings and short pipe segments are commonly used in combination with various materials.[18]

The difference between pipes and tubes is simply in the way it is sized. PVC pipe for plumbing applications and galvanized steel pipe for instance, are measured in IPS (iron pipe size). Copper tube, CPVC, PeX and other tubing is measured nominally, which is basically an average diameter. These sizing schemes allow for universal adaptation of transitional fittings. For instance, 1/2" PeX tubing is the same size as 1/2" copper tubing. 1/2" PVC on the other hand is not the same size as 1/2" tubing, and therefore requires either a threaded male or female adapter to connect them. When used in agricultural irrigation, the singular form "pipe" is often used as a plural.[19]

Pipe is available in rigid "joints", which come in various lengths depending on the material. Tubing, in particular copper, comes in rigid hard tempered "joints" or soft tempered (annealed) rolls. PeX and CPVC tubing also comes in rigid "joints" or flexible rolls. The temper of the copper, that is whether it is a rigid "joint" or flexible roll, does not affect the sizing.[19]

The thicknesses of the water pipe and tube walls can vary. Pipe wall thickness is denoted by various schedules or for large bore polyethylene pipe in the UK by the Standard Dimension Ratio (SDR), defined as the ratio of the pipe diameter to its wall thickness. Pipe wall thickness increases with schedule, and is available in schedules 20, 40, 80, and higher in special cases. The schedule is largely determined by the operating pressure of the system, with higher pressures commanding greater thickness. Copper tubing is available in four wall thicknesses: type DWV (thinnest wall; only allowed as drain pipe per UPC), type 'M' (thin; typically only allowed as drain pipe by IPC code), type 'L' (thicker, standard duty for water lines and water service), and type 'K' (thickest, typically used underground between the main and the meter). Because piping and tubing are commodities, having a greater wall thickness implies higher initial cost. Thicker walled pipe generally implies greater durability and higher pressure tolerances.

Wall thickness does not affect pipe or tubing size.[20] 1/2" L copper has the same outer diameter as 1/2" K or M copper. The same applies to pipe schedules. As a result, a slight increase in pressure losses is realized due to a decrease in flowpath as wall thickness is increased. In other words, 1 foot of 1/2" L copper has slightly less volume than 1 foot of 1/2 M copper.[citation needed]

Water systems of ancient times relied on gravity for the supply of water, using pipes or channels usually made of clay, lead, bamboo, wood, or stone. Hollowed wooden logs wrapped in steel banding were used for plumbing pipes, particularly water mains. Logs were used for water distribution in England close to 500 years ago. US cities began using hollowed logs in the late 1700s through the 1800s. Today, most plumbing supply pipe is made out of steel, copper, and plastic; most waste (also known as "soil")[21] out of steel, copper, plastic, and cast iron.[21]

The straight sections of plumbing systems are called "pipes" or "tubes". A pipe is typically formed via casting or welding, whereas a tube is made through extrusion. Pipe normally has thicker walls and may be threaded or welded, while tubing is thinner-walled and requires special joining techniques such as brazing, compression fitting, crimping, or for plastics, solvent welding. These joining techniques are discussed in more detail in the piping and plumbing fittings article.

Galvanized steel potable water supply and distribution pipes are commonly found with nominal pipe sizes from 38 inch (9.5mm) to 2 inches (51mm). It is rarely used today for new construction residential plumbing. Steel pipe has National Pipe Thread (NPT) standard tapered male threads, which connect with female tapered threads on elbows, tees, couplers, valves, and other fittings. Galvanized steel (often known simply as "galv" or "iron" in the plumbing trade) is relatively expensive, and difficult to work with due to weight and requirement of a pipe threader. It remains in common use for repair of existing "galv" systems and to satisfy building code non-combustibility requirements typically found in hotels, apartment buildings and other commercial applications. It is also extremely durable and resistant to mechanical abuse. Black lacquered steel pipe is the most widely used pipe material for fire sprinklers and natural gas.

Most typical single family home systems won't require supply piping larger than 34 inch (19mm) due to expense as well as steel piping's tendency to become obstructed from internal rusting and mineral deposits forming on the inside of the pipe over time once the internal galvanizing zinc coating has degraded. In potable water distribution service, galvanized steel pipe has a service life of about 30 to 50 years, although it is not uncommon for it to be less in geographic areas with corrosive water contaminants.

Copper pipe and tubing was widely used for domestic water systems in the latter half of the twentieth century. Demand for copper products has fallen due to the dramatic increase in the price of copper, resulting in increased demand for alternative products including PEX and stainless steel.

Plastic pipe is in wide use for domestic water supply and drain-waste-vent (DWV) pipe. Principal types include:Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) was produced experimentally in the 19th century but did not become practical to manufacture until 1926, when Waldo Semon of BF Goodrich Co. developed a method to plasticize PVC, making it easier to process. PVC pipe began to be manufactured in the 1940s and was in wide use for Drain-Waste-Vent piping during the reconstruction of Germany and Japan following WWII. In the 1950s, plastics manufacturers in Western Europe and Japan began producing acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) pipe. The method for producing cross-linked polyethylene (PEX) was also developed in the 1950s. Plastic supply pipes have become increasingly common, with a variety of materials and fittings employed.

Present-day water-supply systems use a network of high-pressure pumps, and pipes in buildings are now made of copper,[25] brass, plastic (particularly cross-linked polyethylene called PEX, which is estimated to be used in 60% of single-family homes[26]), or other nontoxic material. Due to its toxicity, most cities moved away from lead water-supply piping by the 1920s in the United States,[27] although lead pipes were approved by national plumbing codes into the 1980s,[28] and lead was used in plumbing solder for drinking water until it was banned in 1986.[27] Drain and vent lines are made of plastic, steel, cast-iron, or lead.[29][30]

A specific water pipe made for use with pressure vessels. The pipe can sustain high pressure-water and is relatively small

Connecting to an existing water line (white pipe) with a stainless steel tapping sleeve and valve (red). A concrete thrust block is being formed behind the new connection.

In addition to lengths of pipe or tubing, pipe fittings are used in plumbing systems, such as valves, elbows, tees, and unions.[31] Pipe and fittings are held in place with pipe hangers and strapping.

Plumbing fixtures are exchangeable devices using water that can be connected to a building's plumbing system. They are considered to be "fixtures", in that they are semi-permanent parts of buildings, not usually owned or maintained separately. Plumbing fixtures are seen by and designed for the end-users. Some examples of fixtures include water closets[32] (also known as toilets), urinals, bidets, showers, bathtubs, utility and kitchen sinks, drinking fountains, ice makers, humidifiers, air washers, fountains, and eye wash stations.

Threaded pipe joints are sealed with thread seal tape or pipe dope. Many plumbing fixtures are sealed to their mounting surfaces with plumber's putty.[33]

Plumbing equipment includes devices often hidden behind walls or in utility spaces which are not seen by the general public. It includes water meters, pumps, expansion tanks, back flow preventers, water filters, UV sterilization lights, water softeners, water heaters, heat exchangers, gauges, and control systems.

There are many tools a plumber needs to do a good plumbing job. While many simple plumbing tasks can be completed with a few common hand held tools, other more complex jobs require specialised tools, designed specifically to make the job easier.

Specialized plumbing tools include pipe wrenches, flaring pliers, pipe vise, pipe bending machine, pipe cutter, dies, and joining tools such as soldering torches and crimp tools. New tools have been developed to help plumbers fix problems more efficiently. For example, plumbers use video cameras for inspections of hidden leaks or problems, they use hydro jets, and high pressure hydraulic pumps connected to steel cables for trench-less sewer line replacement.

Flooding from excessive rain or clogged sewers may require specialized equipment, such as a heavy duty pumper truck designed to vacuum raw sewage.[citation needed]

Bacteria have been shown to live in "premises plumbing systems". The latter refers to the "pipes and fixtures within a building that transport water to taps after it is delivered by the utility".[34] Community water systems have been known for centuries to spread waterborne diseases like typhoid and cholera, however "opportunistic premises plumbing pathogens" have been recognized only more recently; Legionella pneumophila discovered in 1976, Mycobacterium avium, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa are the most commonly tracked bacteria, which people with depressed immunity can inhale or ingest and may become infected with.[35]These opportunistic pathogens can grow for example in faucets, shower heads, water heaters and along pipe walls. Reasons that favor their growth are "high surface-to-volume ratio, intermittent stagnation, low disinfectant residual, and warming cycles". A high surface-to-volume ratio, i.e. a relatively large surface area allows the bacteria to form a biofilm, which protects them from disinfection.[35]

Much of the plumbing work in populated areas is regulated by government or quasi-government agencies due to the direct impact on the public's health, safety, and welfare. Plumbing installation and repair work on residences and other buildings generally must be done according to plumbing and building codes to protect the inhabitants of the buildings and to ensure safe, quality construction to future buyers. If permits are required for work, plumbing contractors typically secure them from the authorities on behalf of home or building owners.[citation needed]

In the United Kingdom the professional body is the Chartered Institute of Plumbing and Heating Engineering (educational charity status) and it is true that the trade still remains virtually ungoverned;[36] there are no systems in place to monitor or control the activities of unqualified plumbers or those home owners who choose to undertake installation and maintenance works themselves, despite the health and safety issues which arise from such works when they are undertaken incorrectly; see Health Aspects of Plumbing (HAP) published jointly by the World Health Organization (WHO) and the World Plumbing Council (WPC).[37][38] WPC has subsequently appointed a representative to the World Health Organization to take forward various projects related to Health Aspects of Plumbing.[39]

In the United States, plumbing codes and licensing are generally controlled by state and local governments. At the national level, the Environmental Protection Agency has set guidelines about what constitutes lead-free plumbing fittings and pipes, in order to comply with the Safe Drinking Water Act.[40]

Some widely used Standards in the United States are:[citation needed]

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In some ways, plumbing systems remain the same as they have for thousands of years: water flowing through pipes to provide our homes with clean water for drinking and bathing. That means a good plumber always needs the same skills: a set of tools and a little elbow grease. But in other ways, plumbing has evolved to meet the needs of the 21st century, with water treatment systems, water heaters, garbage disposals and other appliances now an integral part of most home plumbing systems.

Since 1987, the professionals at Doug Turner Plumbing CO. have offered the right combination of modern experience and good old-fashioned work ethics to solve all manner of plumbing and water treatment system issues throughout the Sugar Land, TX area. All of our plumbers are licensed and certified, and we provide installation, maintenance, repair, and replacement services for a wide array of plumbing systems. Call us today for services you can depend on!

Doug and Nancy Turner are hands on business owners who founded the company in 1987.

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An outdoor enclosure can be the perfect way to enjoy al fresco living in comfort and accent your yard area. A pergola or creates a special touch to your outdoor space while serving a functional purpose. Adding a pergola or gazebo will enhance the surroundings considerably and add elegance while providing a cool, shaded refuge. A pergola can be used in gardens, patios, decks, and even pool sides. Vines can be grown over the pergola to create an especially intimate ambience. Not only are gazebos and pergolas great for entertaining, but they are also perfect for a whole variety of other outdoor activities.

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