Home Builder Developer - Interior Renovation and Design

Roofing Oakville homes seems to be a lucrative business. There are literally dozens of companies in Oakville that do roofing. It is easy to see why. Its not every day that we step out of the house to look at the roof. Why would we, anyway?

It is important to inspect your roof carefully once every six months or so. You want to know when there is wear and tear and if the sun will be shining in your house any time soon.

You will want to start in the attic; that cold, dark creepy room in your house. The smallest signs here could be signs of damageor impending damage. Look for sagging, water damage and trails, dark spots and sunlight light coming in.

As for the exterior, start with the gutters and drains. Those need to be fastened so they prevent water from leaking.

Go to your rooftop and check for damaged or missing shingles. If there is a high amount of dust-like shingle granules in the gutters, you should probably call a roofing company to take a look at it. This is not a good sign.

You need to check for wear around penetrations such as vents and the chimney. You know its a bad sign if material here is loose. Keep looking to see if you will find mold, moss, fungus or rotting material.

Different material wears differently. You need to know exactly what your roof is made of, be it tiles, concrete, wood or cedar.

Replacing your roof depends on how much damage there is to it. A roof under 20 years old with a little damage does not need replacing. It just needs repairs. However, if your roof is so damaged that it needs replacement, fret not. Oakville has a ton of roofing contractors. Contact multiple companies, explain your situation and hear what each one says.

A roof is way too important to neglect. It is essentially the whole point of a home. If you need some work done on your roof, big or small, Oakville will not let you down. Just flip through your Yellow Pages and get the work done.

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Air Conditioning & Appliance Repair - SoBellas

Hey All!

BradM73 here! In this episode, I get started on building an apartment building!!! Check it out!

Buy Construction Simulator 2015 Retail Version here: http://shop-firstclass.com/products/c...

Construction Simulator 2015, distributed by Excalibur Publishing, is one of the biggest surprises I've had in a very long time. It's fun! The world is actually big enough to feel like this game wasn't just something slopped together. It actually feels a lot like a real place. Even better, I haven't found any major bugs or gameplay issues yet! It feels very polished!

If you were thinking about buying Construction Simulator 2015, just get it. You'll be glad you did. It's got literally hundreds of hours of gameplay. Even after 10 hours of playing, I feel like I've only scratched the surface.

If you're interested in picking it up, click the link at the top to buy it now!

From the Publisher:

"From Excalibur's range of construction games for PC, Construction Simulator 2015 allows the player to assume the role of a builder who sets out to expand his freshly inherited building yard and vehicle fleet by fulfilling construction and supply contracts and working himself up to the top from small-time contractor to the largest construction tycoon in town.

The player will be able to explore a much larger game world with many new features that will set the heart of every construction and simulation fan racing. With a vehicle fleet of 15 construction machines and vehicles painstakingly modeled to reflect their real life counterparts by internationally well-known manufacturers such as LIEBHERR, MAN and STILL, an almost endless variety of building tasks wait to be tackled in a large, freely accessible environment.

Starting out with a small excavator, a deposit tipper and a small flatbed truck, the player will encounter his first small assignments. The money he makes by successfully mastering these tasks can be used to expand the growing businesss fleet. Next to wheel loaders, the vehicle traders of the city are also offering big excavators, half pipe trucks, concrete mixers, concrete pumps, flatbed trucks with a crane, forklifts, low loaders, rollers or giant machines like a LIEBHERR 81k fast-erecting crane or a LTM 1060-3.1 mobile crane.

The more varied the vehicles owned by the player are, the more increasingly complex contracts will be offered to him in the tenders of the citys districts until he can be trusted with very demanding public tenders such as the construction of the municipal swimming pool, a large bridge across the river or even the new city hall.

Thanks to the economic system integrated into the game, being a successful businessman does not only mean taking the wheel of the companys machines but also keeping an eye on your finances and the labor costs of employees and other staff.

An extensive Multiplayer mode allows players of Construction Simulator 2015 for PC to play together with friends and family and fulfill challenging building tasks as a team.

Are you missing a specific vehicle or building type in the game? No problem! The integrated modding feature gives creative builders the means to integrate their dream machines and vehicles into the game as well as design their own missions."

BE SURE TO FOLLOW ME ONLINE!!!

Facebook: https://www.facebook.com/Bradm73Gaming Twitter: https://twitter.com/BradM73 Twitch TV: http://www.twitch.tv/bradm73/profile Google Plus: https://plus.google.com/+BradM73

New 2015 PC Specs (Since so many of you asked):

CPU: Intel i7-5960X Motherboard: Asus X99 Deluxe RAM: 16GB Corsair Vengeance LPX 2800mhz CPU Cooler: Corsair H105 water cooler Graphic card: Asus NVidia GeForce GTX 980 Poseidon w/4GB DDR5 Video Memory (Also optional water cooling on board) Power Supply: Corsair HX1000i (1000Watt) Primary Hard Drive: Samsung 850 EVO 1TB Secondary HDD: Western Digital 2TB Black HDD Case: Cooler Master Cosmos Monitor: Asus 27" Republic of Gamers SWIFT - 1ms response time @ 144Hz Mouse: Logitech G502 Keyboard: Logitech G910

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Construction Simulator 2015 - Episode 19 - The Apartment ...

Our BBB Profile

Giving each customer superior service and ensuring that he or she is satisfied with our job leads to referrals and getting referrals has been the key to the superior growth and expansion of American Design & Contracting.

When we tell people that we are simply the best we use the best system, the best products, the best crews, and we are among the leaders in our industry, they believe us, because it's the truth!

The staff at American Design & Contracting have been designing and installing patios, retaining walls, and walkways. We also specialize in decorative, textured and stamped concrete. It is not just a job...... it is a passion. And our commitment to quality and dedication to our customers shows throughout the property transformation. Each project requires an artistic touch and the latest in installation tools and technology.

We will help you choose the best color, style and pattern to complement your home and transform your outdoor living space. All while taking into account the treatment your property needs, including landscaping, drainage, and grading.

We pride our self on quality craftsmanship. From design to finished product, we are driven by customer satisfaction.

For your convienence our outdoor display is open 7 days a week sunrise to sunset. Feel free to walkthrough and select a design that we can use to beautify your home.

Please park in the paved parking lot and take your time browsing. We are normally out on the field working, if you need any assistance please call ahead of time for an appointment.

We serve the Capital District Albany Guilderland Rotterdam East Greenbush Rensselear Delmar Clifton Park Latham Troy Saratoga Bethlehem Voorheesville Colonie Loudonville Altamont Halfmoon Rexford Niskayuna Scotia / Glenville Glenmont North Greenbush West Sand Lake Ballston Lake Ballston Spa

Turn your backyard into an outdoor living space, a place to entertain your friends or a place for you to relax with your family. We will work with you to design a plan that will fit all your needs and dreams. Whether its a firepit, grilling area or outdoor kitchen area, let us work with you and create a special place for you to call "home".

You can be the envy of your neighbors and friends by enhancing the beauty of the front of your home. Whether you are using brick pavers or concrete, we will help you design and select the materials and colors that will compliment the style of your home.

We offer a full variety of designs, patterns and colors for stamped concrete. Our stamped concrete specialist crew has over 18 year experience in working with stamped concrete.

Click here to view our 2014 Stamped Concrete Brochure to see patterns, colors and more.

We specialize in installing a full range of retaining wall systems. From small homeowner planter walls to elaborate retaining walls, to large commercial engineered architectural walls. No job or project is too big or small. We understand when building a retaining wall you need to have, and look for, quality, durability and value with a unique custom look.

Whether stepping onto a new patio or creating a slope design along the side of your home, safety is paramount to us and we feel it should not be a project left to a rookie. That is why we are professionals in our field. Give us a call to speak with our professionals on why brick steps are the best option for any project.

There are only a few things that can be considered as relaxing as a warm fire on a cool evening! Sit in the comfort of your own outdoor living space and share some smores toasted over your own special firepit with your family and create memories that will last a lifetime.

Let us install your topsoil, sod your yard and install new landscape and mulch to enchance the beauty of your home. We also offer decorative stone and hydroseeding.

We are a full service commercial masonry company offering all phases of concrete work from foundations, curbing, and flatwork to elegant pavers and large retaining walls. We lead our industry locally in completing some of the largest retaining walls in the United States.

We are a full service commercial snow and ice management operation. Offering over 25 years of experience in servicing many of the areas top malls and properties, we pride ourselves in customer service and creating safe environments for all concerned.

Belgard Hardscapes| Techo Bloc| Allan Block| Uni Lock Oaks Pavers| Versa Lok| Keystone Walls| Zappala Block| ICPI| NCMA| SIMA

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American Design and Contracting

MB Gardening Landscaping

are very Proud andhonoredto be a

5 Star Approved and vetted Installer of Bradstone products and member of

the Bradstone Assured Scheme.

GIVING YOU PEACE OF MIND WHEN ORDERING FROM US.

Now with a 5 yearGuarantee, only on Bradstone Products.

Quality from Bradstone at affordable prices.

Welcome to our website please feel free to view the pages , some pictures of the work we have done recently are on most of them.

My blog is very popular with over 24000 visits each month, its full of tips and discussions.

MB Gardening Landscaping

Specialist and Bespoke company in the laying of Patios and the construction of timber Decking since 1995.

Fencing, Brickwork, all hard landscaping carried out to suit your requirements.

Ring us for a free quote today!!

01634 400501 Home/Office

Peters Mobile daytime 07873 72 99 48

I am absolutely delighted with the result of the garden work done by MB Landscapes. Peter and Neil worked really hard and to a very high standard, I was particularly impressed with their flexible approach as the design evolved during the build and their tolerance of my interference. I would thoroughly recommend their services. Here are some the pictures I uploaded for them, planting was done by me.

This is from Mr Frank McConville Larkfield, A fencing job we did recently

"I hired Peter and Neil to replace my existing fence and fit two timber gates, they carried out the work during a very wet few days. The work was completed to a very good standard and I would not hesitate to use them for future projects. They also carried out extra work which did not effect the original quote. Try MB Gardening you will not be dissapointed."

Its Good to get feed back, this is from a fencing job recently done in Dartford.

Pat""Very efficient and friendly. Came and quoted for my fence and sent email explaining everything he would with the price. Arrived nice and early and worked hard until job was done, would highly recommend this chap.

karen.

Got this in from the customer in Sittingbourne scheme done recently Paving and Astro turf.

"A big thank you to yourself and Neil for all your hard work. Boys haven't been in from garden since you left, I've a feeling there won't be much mess inside the house from now as they won't be spending much time indoors anymore. Below is their garden.

Terry and Donna from Larkfield

Hi Peter

Thank You !!

Came home from work to see how fantastic the decking looks

It's FAB.

Jason and I plan to sit out tonight for a pre-birthday ( Jason's Birthday on Saturday- we are trying to celebrate a day early and spread the JOY !! ) drink when Connor has gone to bed. We are able to sit in surroundings that are smart, that are stylish and safe !! - thanks to you.

It was good to see you, sorry I had to go to work - would have loved to stay and have some more time to talk.

THANKS again

Rosie xxx

Hi Peter.

Came back from Lincoln to see my Decking that yourself and Neil had done. Absolutely delighted. Thankyou so much. It looks fantastic Mrs Delaney.(Liam's wife).Many thanks to you and Neil.

It is really pleasing to get testimonials from our customers, this one is in the form of "an Ode".

"Ode to Mb Gardening Landscaping - Peter and Neil

"Sad to be losing our garden gnomes

Hope they'll soon find homes

Bacon butties were thier stable diet

Mind you thats the only thing that kept Neil quiet

Black coffee for our lactoseintolerantboss

Now you've finished we feel the loss

No more banging, no more singing

lots of laughter you were bringing

But we are so very proud

Of our garden, so hear this clear and loud

Thank you Pete, Thank you Neil

We wish you all the best, its been surreal"

The Weatherly Gang- High Halstow Rochester

Nina & Dave, Alexander and Juliette

Pre-School in Chatham

You may have seen this pre school playground, above, we built in the local press recently.

It gave the play group a space that was before just tarmac and not very child friendly, we turned it into a safe play area for around 30 children,they have used it everyday since we built it.

inKent

treated inChatham Kent

The metal railings make a great viewing handrail,

especially if the view is worth it.

Ordering from us you get

***

Over19 years experience

A Friendly professional service

On time and reliable

Skilled craftsmen

Highest quality Local Materials

Other suppliers from the internet provide us with the best.

Competitive prices

Fully insured

Bradstone Approved Installers

A Contract for you to sign.

Patio design

Paving and PatiosKent

garden patios inKent

Our comprehensive range of hard landscaping services includes:

All paving part of the Bradstone Assured Approved Installers Scheme:

Sorry but we are not set up to do garden maintenance.

As well as ourpatio and deckinglandscaping services, we also provide our domesticclientswith a full hard landscaping service.

We Provide A Variety of Services, all of our installations and services are bespoke and can be completely specific to your requirements.

Here atMedwayBespoke GardeningLandscaping we pride ourselves on our dedication to continually reaching the high standards we set ourselves and one of the reasons why our customers keep coming back is that we listen to your exact specifications and carry out the relevant schedule without any fuss.

For your peace of mind, all of our garden installations and services are providedwithour voluntary customer charterand we are fully insured.

Based in Medway, we provide comprehensive garden landscaping service to customers across Kent, including Chatham, Rainham, Rochester, Gillingham, Strood, Gravesend, Sevenoaks, Maidstone, Tunbridge Wells and Sittingbourne.

If your garden has seen better days, speak to the landscaping specialists here at

Medway BespokeLandscaping. Contact Peter to discuss your requirements and arrange a no obligation quotation.

As a bespoke company we will, with your drawing or ours, give you an attractive family garden, a garden that will give you and your family many years of enjoyment.

Our aim is to build lasting relationships with our clients, at the same time ensuring a high level of customer satisfaction and craftsmanship.

We provide a complete Bespoke package solution for all your requirements, ~ your concept, your design through to completion.

PETER :Owner of the company. Specialistin Patios and Decking. Over 40 Years in the trade

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MB Gardening Landscaping - Patios/Decking/fencing/Kent ...

The Punic Wars were a series of three wars fought between Rome and Carthage from 264 BC to 146 BC.[1] At the time, they were probably the largest wars that had ever taken place.[2] The term Punic comes from the Latin word Punicus (or Poenicus), meaning "Carthaginian", with reference to the Carthaginians' Phoenician ancestry.[3] The main cause of the Punic Wars was the conflicts of interest between the existing Carthaginian Empire and the expanding Roman Republic. The Romans were initially interested in expansion via Sicily (which at that time was a cultural melting pot), part of which lay under Carthaginian control. At the start of the first Punic War, Carthage was the dominant power of the Western Mediterranean, with an extensive maritime empire. Rome was a rapidly ascending power in Italy, but it lacked the naval power of Carthage. By the end of the third war, after more than a hundred years and the loss of many hundreds of thousands of soldiers from both sides, Rome had conquered Carthage's empire, completely destroyed the city, and become the most powerful state of the Western Mediterranean.

With the end of the Macedonian Wars which ran concurrently with the Punic Wars and the defeat of the Seleucid King Antiochus III the Great in the RomanSeleucid War (Treaty of Apamea, 188 BC) in the eastern sea, Rome emerged as the dominant Mediterranean power and one of the most powerful cities in classical antiquity. The Roman victories over Carthage in these wars gave Rome a preeminent status it would retain until the 5th century AD.

During the mid-3rd century BC, Carthage was a large city located on the coast of modern Tunisia. Founded by the Phoenicians in the mid-9th century BC, it was a powerful thalassocratic city-state with a vast commercial network. Of the great city-states in the western Mediterranean, only Rome rivaled it in power, wealth, and population. While Carthage's navy was the largest in the ancient world at the time, it did not maintain a large, permanent, standing army. Instead, Carthage relied mostly on mercenaries, especially the indigenous Numidians, to fight its wars.[4] However, most of the officers who commanded the armies were Carthaginian citizens. The Carthaginians were famed for their abilities as sailors, and unlike their armies, many Carthaginians from the lower classes served in their navy, which provided them with a stable income and career.

In 200 BC the Roman Republic had gained control of the Italian peninsula south of the Po river. Unlike Carthage, Rome had large disciplined armed forces. On the other hand, at the start of the First Punic War the Romans had no navy, and were thus at a disadvantage until they began to construct their own large fleets during the war.

The First Punic War (264241 BC) was fought partly on land in Sicily and Africa, but was largely a naval war. It began as a local conflict in Sicily between Hiero II of Syracuse and the Mamertines of Messina. The Mamertines enlisted the aid of the Carthaginian navy, and then subsequently betrayed them by entreating the Roman Senate for aid against Carthage. The Romans sent a garrison to secure Messina, so the outraged Carthaginians then lent aid to Syracuse. With the two powers now embroiled in the conflict, tensions quickly escalated into a full-scale war between Carthage and Rome for the control of Sicily. After a harsh defeat at the Battle of Agrigentum in 262 BC, the Carthaginian leadership resolved to avoid further direct land-based engagements with the powerful Roman legions, and concentrate on the sea where they believed Carthage's large navy had the advantage. Initially the Carthaginian navy prevailed. In 260 BC they defeated the fledgling Roman navy at the Battle of the Lipari Islands. Rome responded by drastically expanding its navy in a very short time. Within two months the Romans had a fleet of over one hundred warships. Because they knew that they could not defeat the Carthaginians in the traditional tactics of ramming and sinking enemy ships, the Romans added the corvus, an assault bridge, to Roman ships. The hinged bridge would swing onto enemy vessels with a sharp spike and stop them. Roman legionaries could then board and capture Carthaginian ships. This innovative Roman tactic reduced the Carthaginian navy's advantage in ship-to-ship engagements, and allowed Rome's superior infantry to be brought to bear in naval conflicts. However, the corvus was also cumbersome and dangerous, and was eventually phased out as the Roman navy became more experienced and tactically proficient. Save for the disastrous defeat at the Battle of Tunis in Africa, and two naval engagements, the First Punic War was a nearly unbroken string of Roman victories. In 241 BC, Carthage signed a peace treaty under the terms of which they evacuated Sicily and paid Rome a large war indemnity. The long war was costly to both powers, but Carthage was more seriously destabilized. In 238 BC, Carthage was plunged into the Mercenary War, during which Rome seized Sardinia and Corsica. Rome was now the most powerful state in the western Mediterranean: its large navy able to prevent seaborne invasion of Italy, control important sea trade routes, and invade foreign shores.[5]

Carthage spent the years following the war improving its finances and expanding its colonial empire in Hispania under the militaristic Barcid family. Rome's attention was mostly concentrated on the Illyrian Wars. In 219 BC Hannibal, the son of Hamilcar Barca, attacked Saguntum in Hispania, a city allied to Rome, starting the second Punic War.

According to Polybius there had been several trade agreements between Rome and Carthage, even a mutual alliance against king Pyrrhus of Epirus. When Rome and Carthage made peace in 241 BC, Rome secured the release of all 8,000 prisoners of war without ransom and, furthermore, received a considerable amount of silver as a war indemnity. However, Carthage refused to deliver to Rome the Roman deserters serving among their troops. A first issue for dispute was that the initial treaty, agreed upon by Hamilcar Barca and the Roman commander in Sicily, had a clause stipulating that the Roman popular assembly had to accept the treaty in order for it to be valid. The assembly not only rejected the treaty but increased the indemnity Carthage had to pay.

Carthage had a liquidity problem and attempted to gain financial help from Egypt, a mutual ally of Rome and Carthage, but failed. This resulted in delay of payments owed to the mercenary troops that had served Carthage in Sicily, leading to a climate of mutual mistrust and, finally, a revolt supported by the Libyan natives, known as the Mercenary War (240238 BC). During this war, Rome and Syracuse both aided Carthage, although traders from Italy seem to have done business with the insurgents. Some of them were caught and punished by Carthage, aggravating the political climate which had started to improve in recognition of the old alliance and treaties.

During the uprising in the Punic mainland, the mercenary troops in Corsica and Sardinia toppled Punic rule and briefly established their own, but were expelled by a native uprising. After securing aid from Rome, the exiled mercenaries then regained authority on the island of Sicily. For several years a brutal campaign was fought to quell the insurgent natives. Like many Sicilians, they would ultimately rise again in support of Carthage during the Second Punic War.

Eventually, Rome annexed Corsica and Sardinia by revisiting the terms of the treaty that ended the first Punic War. As Carthage was under siege and engaged in a difficult civil war, they begrudgingly accepted the loss of these islands and the subsequent Roman conditions for ongoing peace, which also increased the war indemnity levied against Carthage after the first Punic War. This eventually plunged relations between the two powers to a new low point.

After Carthage emerged victorious from the Mercenary War there were two opposing factions: the reformist party was led by Hamilcar Barca while the other, more conservative, faction was represented by Hanno the Great and the old Carthaginian aristocracy. Hamilcar had led the initial Carthaginian peace negotiations and was blamed for the clause that allowed the Roman popular assembly to increase the war indemnity and annex Corsica and Sardinia, but his superlative generalship was instrumental in enabling Carthage to ultimately quell the mercenary uprising, ironically fought against many of the same mercenary troops he had trained. Hamilcar ultimately left Carthage for the Iberian peninsula where he captured rich silver mines and subdued many tribes who fortified his army with levies of native troops.

Hanno had lost many elephants and soldiers when he became complacent after a victory in the Mercenary War. Further, when he and Hamilcar were supreme commanders of Carthage's field armies, the soldiers had supported Hamilcar when his and Hamilcar's personalities clashed. On the other hand, he was responsible for the greatest territorial expansion of Carthage's hinterland during his rule as strategus and wanted to continue such expansion. However, the Numidian king of the relevant area was now a son-in-law of Hamilcar and had supported Carthage during a crucial moment in the Mercenary War. While Hamilcar was able to obtain the resources for his aim, the Numidians in the Atlas Mountains were not conquered, like Hanno suggested, but became vassals of Carthage.

The Iberian conquest was begun by Hamilcar Barca and his other son-in-law, Hasdrubal the Fair, who ruled relatively independently of Carthage and signed the Ebro Treaty with Rome. Hamilcar died in battle in 228 BC. Around this time, Hasdrubal became Carthaginian commander in Iberia (229 BC). He maintained this post for some eight years until 221 BC. Soon the Romans became aware of a burgeoning alliance between Carthage and the Celts of the Po river valley in northern Italy. The latter were amassing forces to invade Italy, presumably with Carthaginian backing. Thus, the Romans preemptively invaded the Po region in 225 BC. By 220 BC, the Romans had annexed the area as Gallia Cisalpina.[6] Hasdrubal was assassinated around the same time (221 BC), bringing Hannibal to the fore. It seems that, having apparently dealt with the threat of a Gaulo-Carthaginian invasion of Italy (and perhaps with the original Carthaginian commander killed), the Romans lulled themselves into a false sense of security. Thus, Hannibal took the Romans by surprise a mere two years later (218 BC) by merely reviving and adapting the original Gaulo-Carthaginian invasion plan of his brother-in-law Hasdrubal.

After Hasdrubal's assassination by a Celtic assassin, Hamilcar's young sons took over, with Hannibal becoming the strategus of Iberia, although this decision was not undisputed in Carthage. The output of the Iberian silver mines allowed for the financing of a standing army and the payment of the war indemnity to Rome. The mines also served as a tool for political influence, creating a faction in Carthage's magistrate that was called the Barcino.

In 219 BC Hannibal attacked the town of Saguntum, which stood under the special protection of Rome. According to Roman tradition, Hannibal had been made to swear by his father never to be a friend of Rome, and he certainly did not take a conciliatory attitude when the Romans berated him for crossing the river Iberus (Ebro) which Carthage was bound by treaty not to cross. Hannibal did not cross the Ebro River (Saguntum was near modern Valencia well south of the river) in arms, and the Saguntines provoked his attack by attacking their neighboring tribes who were Carthaginian protectorates and by massacring pro-Punic factions in their city. Rome had no legal protection pact with any tribe south of the Ebro River. Nonetheless, they asked Carthage to hand Hannibal over, and when the Carthaginian oligarchy refused, Rome declared war on Carthage.

The 'Barcid Empire' consisted of the Punic territories in Iberia. According to the historian Pedro Barcel, it can be described as a private military-economic hegemony backed by the two independent powers, Carthage and Gades (modern Cdiz). These shared the profits of the silver mines in southern Iberia with the Barcas family and closely followed Hellenistic diplomatic customs. Gades played a supporting role in this field, but Hannibal visited the local temple to conduct ceremonies before launching his campaign against Rome. The Barcid Empire was strongly influenced by the Hellenistic kingdoms of the time and for example, contrary to Carthage, it minted silver coins in its short time of existence.[7][pageneeded]

The Second Punic War (218 BC 201 BC) is most remembered for the Carthaginian Hannibal's crossing of the Alps. His army invaded Italy from the north and resoundingly defeated the Roman army in several battles, but never achieved the ultimate goal of causing a political break between Rome and its allies.

While fighting Hannibal in Italy, Hispania, and Sicily, Rome simultaneously fought against Macedon in the First Macedonian War. Eventually, the war was taken to Africa, where Carthage was defeated at the Battle of Zama by Scipio Africanus. The end of the war saw Carthage's control reduced to only the city itself.

There were three military theaters in this war: Italy, where Hannibal defeated the Roman legions repeatedly; Hispania, where Hasdrubal, a younger brother of Hannibal, defended the Carthaginian colonial cities with mixed success until eventually retreating into Italy; and Sicily, where the Romans held military supremacy.

After assaulting Saguntum in Hispania (219 BC), Hannibal attacked Italy in 218 BC by leading the Iberians and three dozen elephants through the Alps. Although Hannibal surprised the Romans and thoroughly beat them on the battlefields of Italy, he lost his only siege engines and most of his elephants to the cold temperatures and icy mountain paths. In the end he could defeat the Romans in the field, but not in the strategically crucial city of Rome itself, thus leaving him unable to win the war.

Hannibal defeated the Roman legions in several major engagements, including the Battle of the Trebia (December 218 BC), the Battle of Lake Trasimene (217 BC) and most famously the Battle of Cannae (216 BC), but his long-term strategy failed. Lacking siege engines and sufficient manpower to take the city of Rome itself, he had planned to turn the Italian allies against Rome and to starve the city out through a siege. However, with the exception of a few of the southern city-states, the majority of the Roman allies remained loyal and continued to fight alongside Rome, despite Hannibal's near-invincible army devastating the Italian countryside. Rome also exhibited an impressive ability to draft army after army of conscripts after each crushing defeat by Hannibal, allowing them to recover from the defeats at Cannae and elsewhere and to keep Hannibal cut off from aid.

Hannibal never successfully received any significant reinforcements from Carthage. Despite his many pleas, Carthage only ever sent reinforcements successfully to Hispania. This lack of reinforcements prevented Hannibal from decisively ending the conflict by conquering Rome through force of arms.

The Roman army under Quintus Fabius Maximus intentionally deprived Hannibal of open battle in Italy for the rest of the war, while making it difficult for Hannibal to forage for supplies. Nevertheless, Rome was also incapable of bringing the conflict in the Italian theatre to a decisive close. Not only did Roman legions contend with Hannibal in Italy and with Hannibal's brother Hasdrubal in Hispania, but Rome had embroiled itself in yet another foreign war, the first of its Macedonian wars against Carthage's ally Philip V, at the same time.

Through Hannibal's inability to take strategically important Italian cities, through the general loyalty Italian allies showed to Rome, and through Rome's own inability to counter Hannibal as a master general, Hannibal's campaign continued in Italy inconclusively for sixteen years. Though he managed to sustain his forces for 15 years, Hannibal did so only by ravaging farm-lands, keeping his army healthy, which brought anger among the Romans' subject states. Realizing that Hannibal's army was outrunning its supply lines quickly, Rome took countermeasures against Hannibal's home base in Africa by sea command and stopped the flow of supplies. Hannibal quickly turned back and rushed to home defense, but suffered defeat in the Battle of Zama (202 BC).

In Hispania, a young Roman commander, Publius Cornelius Scipio (later to be given the agnomen Africanus because of his feats during this war), eventually defeated the larger but divided Carthaginian forces under Hasdrubal and two other Carthaginian generals. Abandoning Hispania, Hasdrubal moved to bring his mercenary army into Italy to reinforce Hannibal.

The Third Punic War (149146 BC) involved an extended siege of Carthage, ending in the city's thorough destruction. The resurgence of the struggle can be explained by growing anti-Roman agitations in Hispania and Greece, and the visible improvement of Carthaginian wealth and martial power in the fifty years since the Second War.

With no military, Carthage suffered raids from its neighbor Numidia. Under the terms of the treaty with Rome, such disputes were arbitrated by the Roman Senate. Because Numidia was a favored client state of Rome, Roman rulings were slanted heavily to favor the Numidians. After some fifty years of this condition, Carthage had managed to discharge its war indemnity to Rome, and considered itself no longer bound by the restrictions of the treaty, although Rome believed otherwise. Carthage mustered an army to repel Numidian forces. It immediately lost the war with Numidia, placing itself in debt yet again, this time to Numidia.

This new-found Punic militarism alarmed many Romans, including Cato the Elder who, after a voyage to Carthage, ended all his speeches, no matter what the topic, by saying: "Ceterum censeo Carthaginem esse delendam" "By the way I think that Carthage must be destroyed".

In 149 BC, in an attempt to draw Carthage into open conflict, Rome made a series of escalating demands, one being the surrender of three hundred children of the nobility as hostages, and finally ending with the near-impossible demand that the city be demolished and rebuilt away from the coast, deeper into Africa. When the Carthaginians refused this last demand, Rome declared the Third Punic War. Having previously relied on mercenaries to fight their wars for them, the Carthaginians were now forced into a more active role in the defense of their city. They made thousands of makeshift weapons in a short time, even using women's hair for catapult strings, and were able to hold off the initial Roman attack. A second offensive under the command of Scipio Aemilianus resulted in a three-year siege before he breached the walls, sacked the city, and systematically burned Carthage to the ground in 146 BC.

After Rome emerged as victorious, significant Carthaginian settlements, such as those in Mauretania, were taken over and aggrandized by the Romans. Volubilis, for example, was an important Roman town situated near the westernmost border of Roman conquests. It was built on the site of the previous Carthaginian settlement that overlies an earlier neolithic habitation.[8]

Ancient Roman wars

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Punic Wars - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

"A/C" redirects here. For other uses, see AC.

Air conditioning (often referred to as 'A/C' or 'AC') is the process of altering the properties of air (primarily temperature and humidity) to more comfortable conditions, typically with the aim of distributing the conditioned air to an occupied space such as a building or a vehicle to improve thermal comfort and indoor air quality. In common use, an air conditioner is a device that lowers the air temperature. The cooling is typically achieved through a refrigeration cycle, but sometimes evaporation or free cooling is used. Air conditioning systems can also be made based on desiccants.[1]

In the most general sense, air conditioning can refer to any form of technology that modifies the condition of air (heating, cooling, (de-)humidification, cleaning, ventilation, or air movement). However, in construction, such a complete system of heating, ventilation, and air conditioning is referred to as heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC -as opposed to AC).[2]

The basic concept behind air conditioning is said to have been applied in ancient Egypt, where reeds were hung in windows and were moistened with trickling water. The evaporation of water cooled the air blowing through the window. This process also made the air more humid, which can be beneficial in a dry desert climate. In Ancient Rome, water from aqueducts was circulated through the walls of certain houses to cool them. Other techniques in medieval Persia involved the use of cisterns and wind towers to cool buildings during the hot season.[3]

Modern air conditioning emerged from advances in chemistry during the 19th century, and the first large-scale electrical air conditioning was invented and used in 1902 by American inventor Willis Carrier. The introduction of residential air conditioning in the 1920s helped enable the great migration to the Sun Belt in the United States.

The 2nd-century Chinese inventor Ding Huan (fl 180) of the Han Dynasty invented a rotary fan for air conditioning, with seven wheels 3m (9.8ft) in diameter and manually powered.[4] In 747, Emperor Xuanzong (r. 712762) of the Tang Dynasty (618907) had the Cool Hall (Liang Tian) built in the imperial palace, which the Tang Yulin describes as having water-powered fan wheels for air conditioning as well as rising jet streams of water from fountains. During the subsequent Song Dynasty (9601279), written sources mentioned the air conditioning rotary fan as even more widely used.[5]

In the 17th century, Cornelis Drebbel demonstrated "Turning Summer into Winter" for James I of England by adding salt to water.[6]

In 1758, Benjamin Franklin and John Hadley, a chemistry professor at Cambridge University, conducted an experiment to explore the principle of evaporation as a means to rapidly cool an object. Franklin and Hadley confirmed that evaporation of highly volatile liquids (such as alcohol and ether) could be used to drive down the temperature of an object past the freezing point of water. They conducted their experiment with the bulb of a mercury thermometer as their object and with a bellows used to speed-up the evaporation. They lowered the temperature of the thermometer bulb down to 14C (7F) while the ambient temperature was 18C (64F). Franklin noted that, soon after they passed the freezing point of water 0C (32F), a thin film of ice formed on the surface of the thermometer's bulb and that the ice mass was about a quarter-inch thick when they stopped the experiment upon reaching 14C (7F). Franklin concluded: "From this experiment one may see the possibility of freezing a man to death on a warm summer's day"[7]

In 1820, English scientist and inventor Michael Faraday discovered that compressing and liquefying ammonia could chill air when the liquefied ammonia was allowed to evaporate. In 1842, Florida physician John Gorrie used compressor technology to create ice, which he used to cool air for his patients in his hospital in Apalachicola, Florida.[8] He hoped to eventually use his ice-making machine to regulate the temperature of buildings. He even envisioned centralized air conditioning that could cool entire cities. Though his prototype leaked and performed irregularly, Gorrie was granted a patent in 1851 for his ice-making machine.[9] His hopes for its success vanished soon afterwards when his chief financial backer died; Gorrie did not get the money he needed to develop the machine. According to his biographer, Vivian M. Sherlock, he blamed the "Ice King", Frederic Tudor, for his failure, suspecting that Tudor had launched a smear campaign against his invention. Dr. Gorrie died impoverished in 1855, and the idea of air conditioning went away for 50 years.

Since prehistoric times, snow and ice were used for cooling. The business of harvesting ice during winter and storing for use in summer became popular towards the late 19th century.[10] This practice was replaced by mechanical ice-making machines.

James Harrison's first mechanical ice-making machine began operation in 1851 on the banks of the Barwon River at Rocky Point in Geelong (Australia). His first commercial ice-making machine followed in 1854, and his patent for an ether vapor compression refrigeration system was granted in 1855. This novel system used a compressor to force the refrigeration gas to pass through a condenser, where it cooled down and liquefied. The liquefied gas then circulated through the refrigeration coils and vaporised again, cooling down the surrounding system. The machine employed a 5m (16ft.) flywheel and produced 3,000 kilograms (6,600lb) of ice per day.[citation needed]

Though Harrison had commercial success establishing a second ice company back in Sydney in 1860, he later entered the debate over how to compete against the American advantage of unrefrigerated beef sales to the United Kingdom. He wrote: "Fresh meat frozen and packed as if for a voyage, so that the refrigerating process may be continued for any required period", and in 1873 prepared the sailing ship Norfolk for an experimental beef shipment to the United Kingdom. His choice of a cold room system instead of installing a refrigeration system upon the ship itself proved disastrous when the ice was consumed faster than expected.[11]

In 1902, the first modern electrical air conditioning unit was invented by Willis Carrier in Buffalo, New York. After graduating from Cornell University, Carrier found a job at the Buffalo Forge Company. While there, he began experimenting with air conditioning as a way to solve an application problem for the Sackett-Wilhelms Lithographing and Publishing Company in Brooklyn, New York. The first air conditioner, designed and built in Buffalo by Carrier, began working on 17 July 1902.

Designed to improve manufacturing process control in a printing plant, Carrier's invention controlled not only temperature but also humidity. Carrier used his knowledge of the heating of objects with steam and reversed the process. Instead of sending air through hot coils, he sent it through cold coils (filled with cold water). The air was cooled, and thereby the amount of moisture in the air could be controlled, which in turn made the humidity in the room controllable. The controlled temperature and humidity helped maintain consistent paper dimensions and ink alignment. Later, Carrier's technology was applied to increase productivity in the workplace, and The Carrier Air Conditioning Company of America was formed to meet rising demand. Over time, air conditioning came to be used to improve comfort in homes and automobiles as well. Residential sales expanded dramatically in the 1950s.

In 1906, Stuart W. Cramer of Charlotte, North Carolina was exploring ways to add moisture to the air in his textile mill. Cramer coined the term "air conditioning", using it in a patent claim he filed that year as an analogue to "water conditioning", then a well-known process for making textiles easier to process. He combined moisture with ventilation to "condition" and change the air in the factories, controlling the humidity so necessary in textile plants. Willis Carrier adopted the term and incorporated it into the name of his company.[citation needed]

Shortly thereafter, the first private home to have air conditioning was built in Chapel Hill, North Carolina in 1933. Realizing that air conditioning would one day be a standard feature of private homes, particularly in regions with warmer climate, David St. Pierre DuBose (1898-1994) designed a network of ductwork and vents for his home Meadowmont, all disguised behind intricate and attractive Georgian-style open moldings. This building is believed to be one of the first private homes in the United States equipped for central air conditioning.[12]

In 1945, Robert Sherman of Lynn, Massachusetts invented a portable, in-window air conditioner that cooled, heated, humidified, dehumidified, and filtered the air. The idea was subsequently stolen[citation needed] by a large manufacturer.[which?] Sherman did not have the resources to fight the big corporation in court and thus never received any money or recognition. He died in 1962.[13]

The first air conditioners and refrigerators employed toxic or flammable gases, such as ammonia, methyl chloride, or propane, that could result in fatal accidents when they leaked. Thomas Midgley, Jr. created the first non-flammable, non-toxic chlorofluorocarbon gas, Freon, in 1928. The name is a trademark name owned by DuPont for any chlorofluorocarbon (CFC), hydrochlorofluorocarbon (HCFC), or hydrofluorocarbon (HFC) refrigerant. The refrigerant names include a number indicating the molecular composition (e.g., R-11, R-12, R-22, R-134A). The blend most used in direct-expansion home and building comfort cooling is an HCFC known as R-22.

R-12 was the most common blend used in automobiles in the US until 1994, when most designs changed to R-134A due to the ozone-depleting potential of R-12. R-11 and R-12 are no longer manufactured in the US for this type of application, so the only source for air-conditioning repair purposes is the cleaned and purified gas recovered from other air conditioner systems. Several non-ozone-depleting refrigerants have been developed as alternatives, including R-410A. It was first commercially used by Carrier Corp. under the brand name Puron.

Modern refrigerants have been developed to be more environmentally safe than many of the early chlorofluorocarbon-based refrigerants used in the early- and mid-twentieth century. These include HCFCs (R-22, as used in most U.S. homes even before 2011) and HFCs (R-134a, used in most cars) have replaced most CFC use. HCFCs, in turn, are supposed to have been in the process of being phased out under the Montreal Protocol and replaced by HFCs such as R-410A, which lack chlorine.[citation needed] HFCs, however, contribute to climate change problems. Moreover, policy and political influence by corporate executives resisted change.[14][15] Corporations insisted that no alternatives to HFCs existed. The environmental organization Greenpeace solicited a European laboratory to research an alternative ozone- and climate-safe refrigerant in 1992, gained patent rights to a hydrocarbon mix of isopentane and isobutane, but then left the technology as open access.[16][17] Their activist marketing first in Germany led to companies like Whirlpool, Bosch, and later LG and others to incorporate the technology throughout Europe, then Asia, although the corporate executives resisted in Latin America, so that it arrived in Argentina produced by a domestic firm in 2003, and then finally with giant Bosch's production in Brazil by 2004.[18][19] In 1995, Germany made CFC refrigerators illegal.[20] DuPont and other companies blocked the refrigerant in the U.S. with the U.S. E.P.A., disparaging the approach as "that German technology."[19][21] Nevertheless, in 2004, Greenpeace worked with multinational corporations like Coca-Cola and Unilever, and later Pepsico and others, to create a corporate coalition called Refrigerants Naturally!.[20][22] Then, four years later, Ben & Jerry's of Unilever and General Electric began to take steps to support production and use in the U.S.[23][24] Only in 2011 did the E.P.A. finally decide in favor of the ozone- and climate-safe refrigerant for U.S. manufacture.[16][25][26]

In the refrigeration cycle, heat is transported from a colder location to a hotter area. As heat would naturally flow in the opposite direction, work is required to achieve this. A refrigerator is an example of such a system, as it transports the heat out of the interior and into its environment (i.e., the room). The refrigerant is used as the medium which absorbs and removes heat from the space to be cooled and subsequently rejects that heat elsewhere.

Circulating refrigerant vapor enters the compressor and is compressed to a higher pressure, resulting in a higher temperature as well. The hot, compressed refrigerant vapor is now at a temperature and pressure at which it can be condensed and is routed through a condenser. Here it is cooled by air flowing across the condenser coils and condensed into a liquid. Thus, the circulating refrigerant moves heat from the system and the heat is carried away by the air.

The condensed and pressurized liquid refrigerant is next routed through an expansion valve where it undergoes an abrupt reduction in pressure. That pressure reduction results in flash evaporation of a part of the liquid refrigerant, lowering its temperature. The cold refrigerant is then routed through the evaporator. A fan blows the warm air (which is to be cooled) across the evaporator, causing the liquid part of the cold refrigerant mixture to evaporate as well, further lowering the temperature. The warm air is therefore cooled.

To complete the refrigeration cycle, the refrigerant vapor is routed back into the compressor.

By placing the condenser inside a compartment, and the evaporator in the ambient environment (such as outside), or by merely running an air conditioner's refrigerant in the opposite direction, the overall effect is the opposite, and the compartment is heated instead of cooled. See also heat pump.

The engineering of physical and thermodynamic properties of gasvapor mixtures is called psychrometrics.

A heat pump is an air conditioner in which the refrigeration cycle can be reversed, producing heating instead of cooling in the indoor environment. They are also commonly referred to as a "reverse cycle air conditioner". The heat pump is significantly more energy efficient than electric resistance heating. Some homeowners elect to have a heat pump system installed as a feature of a central air conditioner. When the heat pump is in heating mode, the indoor evaporator coil switches roles and becomes the condenser coil, producing heat. The outdoor condenser unit also switches roles to serve as the evaporator, and discharges cold air (colder than the ambient outdoor air).

Air-source heat pumps are more popular in milder winter climates where the temperature is frequently in the range of 4055F (413C), because heat pumps become inefficient in more extreme cold. This is because ice forms on the outdoor unit's heat exchanger coil, which blocks air flow over the coil. To compensate for this, the heat pump system must temporarily switch back into the regular air conditioning mode to switch the outdoor evaporator coil back to being the condenser coil, so that it can heat up and defrost. A heat pump system will therefore have a form of electric resistance heating in the indoor air path that is activated only in this mode in order to compensate for the temporary indoor air cooling, which would otherwise be uncomfortable in the winter. The icing problem becomes much more severe with lower outdoor temperatures, so heat pumps are commonly installed in tandem with a more conventional form of heating, such as a natural gas or oil furnace, which is used instead of the heat pump during harsher winter temperatures. In this case, the heat pump is used efficiently during the milder temperatures, and the system is switched to the conventional heat source when the outdoor temperature is lower.

Absorption heat pumps are a kind of air-source heat pump, but they do not depend on electricity to power them. Instead, gas, solar power, or heated water is used as a main power source. An absorption pump dissolves ammonia gas in water, which gives off heat. Next, the water and ammonia mixture is depressurized to induce boiling, and the ammonia is boiled off, which absorbs heat from the outdoor air.[27]

Some more expensive window air conditioning units have a true heat pump function. However, a window unit may only have an electric resistance heater.

In very dry climates, evaporative coolers, sometimes referred to as swamp coolers or desert coolers, are popular for improving coolness during hot weather. An evaporative cooler is a device that draws outside air through a wet pad, such as a large sponge soaked with water. The sensible heat of the incoming air, as measured by a dry bulb thermometer, is reduced. The total heat (sensible heat plus latent heat) of the entering air is unchanged. Some of the sensible heat of the entering air is converted to latent heat by the evaporation of water in the wet cooler pads. If the entering air is dry enough, the results can be quite substantial.

Evaporative coolers tend to feel as if they are not working during times of high humidity, when there is not much dry air with which the coolers can work to make the air as cool as possible for dwelling occupants. Unlike other types of air conditioners, evaporative coolers rely on the outside air to be channeled through cooler pads that cool the air before it reaches the inside of a house through its air duct system; this cooled outside air must be allowed to push the warmer air within the house out through an exhaust opening such as an open door or window.[28] These coolers cost less and are mechanically simple to understand and maintain.

An early type of cooler, using ice for a further effect, was patented by John Gorrie of Apalachicola, Florida in 1842. He used the device to cool the patients in his malaria hospital.[citation needed]

Air conditioning can also be provided by a process called free cooling which uses pumps to circulate a coolant (typically water or a glycol mix) from a cold source, which in turn acts as a heat sink for the energy that is removed from the cooled space. Common storage media are deep aquifers or a natural underground rock mass accessed via a cluster of small-diameter boreholes, equipped with heat exchanger. Some systems with small storage capacity are hybrid systems, using free cooling early in the cooling season, and later employing a heat pump to chill the circulation coming from the storage. The heat pump is added because the temperature of the storage gradually increases during the cooling season, thereby declining its effectiveness.

Free cooling systems can have very high efficiencies, and are sometimes combined with seasonal thermal energy storage (STES) so the cold of winter can be used for summer air conditioning. Free cooling and hybrid systems are mature technology.[29]

Since humans perspire to provide natural cooling by the evaporation of perspiration from the skin, drier air (up to a point) improves the comfort provided. The comfort air conditioner is designed to create a 40% to 60% relative humidity in the occupied space.

Refrigeration air conditioning equipment usually reduces the absolute humidity of the air processed by the system. The relatively cold (below the dewpoint) evaporator coil condenses water vapor from the processed air, much like an ice-cold drink will condense water on the outside of a glass. Therefore, water vapor is removed from the cooled air and the relative humidity in the room is lowered. The water is usually sent to a drain or may simply drip onto the ground outdoors. The heat is rejected by the condenser which is located outside of room to be cooled.

A specialized air conditioner that is used only for dehumidifying is called a dehumidifier. It also uses a refrigeration cycle, but differs from a standard air conditioner in that both the evaporator and the condenser are placed in the same air path. A standard air conditioner transfers heat energy out of the room because its condenser coil releases heat outside. However, since all components of the dehumidifier are in the same room, no heat energy is removed. Instead, the electric power consumed by the dehumidifier remains in the room as heat, so the room is actually heated, just as by an electric heater that draws the same amount of power.

In addition, if water is condensed in the room, the amount of heat previously needed to evaporate that water also is re-released in the room (the latent heat of vaporization). The dehumidification process is the inverse of adding water to the room with an evaporative cooler, and instead releases heat. Therefore, an in-room dehumidifier always will warm the room and reduce the relative humidity indirectly, as well as reducing the humidity directly by condensing and removing water.

Inside the unit, the air passes over the evaporator coil first, and is cooled and dehumidified. The now dehumidified, cold air then passes over the condenser coil where it is warmed up again. Then the air is released back into the room. The unit produces warm, dehumidified air and can usually be placed freely in the environment (room) that is to be conditioned.

Dehumidifiers are commonly used in cold, damp climates to prevent mold growth indoors, especially in basements. They are also used to protect sensitive equipment from the adverse effects of excessive humidity in tropical countries.

In a thermodynamically closed system, any power dissipated into the system that is being maintained at a set temperature (which is a standard mode of operation for modern air conditioners) requires that the rate of energy removal by the air conditioner increase. This increase has the effect that, for each unit of energy input into the system (say to power a light bulb in the closed system), the air conditioner removes that energy.[30] In order to do so, the air conditioner must increase its power consumption by the inverse of its "efficiency" (coefficient of performance) times the amount of power dissipated into the system. As an example, assume that inside the closed system a 100W heating element is activated, and the air conditioner has an coefficient of performance of 200%. The air conditioner's power consumption will increase by 50W to compensate for this, thus making the 100W heating element cost a total of 150W of power.

It is typical for air conditioners to operate at "efficiencies" of significantly greater than 100%.[31] However, it may be noted that the input electrical energy is of higher thermodynamic quality (lower entropy) than the output thermal energy (heat energy).

Air conditioner equipment power in the U.S. is often described in terms of "tons of refrigeration". A ton of refrigeration is approximately equal to the cooling power of one short ton (2000 pounds or 907 kilograms) of ice melting in a 24-hour period. The value is defined as 12,000 BTU per hour, or 3517 watts.[32] Residential central air systems are usually from 1 to 5 tons (3 to 20 kilowatts (kW)) in capacity.

For residential homes, some countries set minimum requirements for energy efficiency. In the United States, the efficiency of air conditioners is often (but not always) rated by the seasonal energy efficiency ratio (SEER). The higher the SEER rating, the more energy efficient is the air conditioner. The SEER rating is the BTU of cooling output during its normal annual usage divided by the total electric energy input in watt hours (Wh) during the same period.[33]

this can also be rewritten as:

For example, a 5000 BTU/h air-conditioning unit, with a SEER of 10, would consume 5000/10 = 500 Watts of power on average.

The electrical energy consumed per year can be calculated as the average power multiplied by the annual operating time:

Assuming 1000 hours of operation during a typical cooling season (i.e., 8 hours per day for 125 days per year).

Another method that yields the same result, is to calculate the total annual cooling output:

Then, for a SEER of 10, the annual electrical energy usage would be:

SEER is related to the coefficient of performance (COP) commonly used in thermodynamics and also to the Energy Efficiency Ratio (EER). The EER is the efficiency rating for the equipment at a particular pair of external and internal temperatures, while SEER is calculated over a whole range of external temperatures (i.e., the temperature distribution for the geographical location of the SEER test). SEER is unusual in that it is composed of an Imperial unit divided by an SI unit. The COP is a ratio with the same metric units of energy (joules) in both the numerator and denominator. They cancel out, leaving a dimensionless quantity. Formulas for the approximate conversion between SEER and EER or COP are available from the Pacific Gas and Electric Company:[34]

From equation (2) above, a SEER of 13 is equivalent to a COP of 3.43, which means that 3.43 units of heat energy are pumped per unit of work energy.

The United States now requires that residential systems manufactured in 2006 have a minimum SEER rating of 13 (although window-box systems are exempt from this law, so their SEER is still around 10).

Window unit air conditioners are installed in an open window. The interior air is cooled as a fan blows it over the evaporator. On the exterior the heat drawn from the interior is dissipated into the environment as a second fan blows outside air over the condenser. A large house or building may have several such units, permitting each room to be cooled separately.[35]

Packaged terminal air conditioner (PTAC) systems are also known as wall-split air conditioning systems.[citation needed] They are ductless systems. PTACs, which are frequently used in hotels, have two separate units (terminal packages), the evaporative unit on the interior and the condensing unit on the exterior, with an opening passing through the wall and connecting them. This minimizes the interior system footprint and allows each room to be adjusted independently. PTAC systems may be adapted to provide heating in cold weather, either directly by using an electric strip, gas, or other heater, or by reversing the refrigerant flow to heat the interior and draw heat from the exterior air, converting the air conditioner into a heat pump. While room air conditioning provides maximum flexibility, when used to cool many rooms at a time it is generally more expensive than central air conditioning.

The first practical through-the-wall air conditioning unit was invented by engineers at Chrysler Motors and offered for sale starting in 1935.[36]

Split-system air conditioners come in two forms: mini-split and central systems. In both types, the inside-environment (evaporative) heat exchanger is separated by some distance from the outside-environment (condensing unit) heat exchanger.

A mini-split system typically supplies chilled air to a single or a few rooms of a building.[37] Mini-split systems typically produce 9,000to 36,000Btu (9,50038,000kJ) per hour of cooling.[38]

Advantages of the ductless system include smaller size and flexibility for zoning or heating and cooling individual rooms. The inside wall space required is significantly reduced. Also, the compressor and heat exchanger can be located farther away from the inside space, rather than merely on the other side of the same unit as in a PTAC or window air conditioner. Flexible exterior hoses lead from the outside unit to the interior one(s); these are often enclosed with metal to look like common drainpipes from the roof. In addition, ductless systems offer higher efficiency, reaching above 30 SEER.[39]

The primary disadvantage of ductless air conditioners is their cost. Such systems cost about US$1,500 to US$2,000 per ton (12,000 BTU per hour) of cooling capacity. This is about 30% more than central systems (not including ductwork) and may cost more than twice as much as window units of similar capacity."[40]

An additional possible disadvantage that may increase net cost is that ductless systems may sometimes not be eligible for energy efficiency rebates offered by many electric utility companies as part of an incentive program to reduce summer cooling load on the electrical grid.[41]

Central (ducted) air conditioning offers whole-house or large-commercial-space cooling, and often offers moderate multi-zone temperature control capability by the addition of air-louver-control boxes.

In central air conditioning, the inside heat-exchanger is typically placed inside the central furnace/AC unit of the forced air heating system which is then used in the summer to distribute chilled air throughout a residence or commercial building.

A portable air conditioner can be easily transported inside a home or office. They are currently available with capacities of about 5,00060,000BTU/h (1,80018,000W output) and with or without electric-resistance heaters. Portable air conditioners are either evaporative or refrigerative.

The compressor-based refrigerant systems are air-cooled, meaning they use air to exchange heat, in the same way as a car or typical household air conditioner does. Such a system dehumidifies the air as it cools it. It collects water condensed from the cooled air and produces hot air which must be vented outside the cooled area; doing so transfers heat from the air in the cooled area to the outside air.

A portable system has an indoor unit on wheels connected to an outdoor unit via flexible pipes, similar to a permanently fixed installed unit.

Hose systems, which can be monoblock or air-to-air, are vented to the outside via air ducts. The monoblock type collects the water in a bucket or tray and stops when full. The air-to-air type re-evaporates the water and discharges it through the ducted hose and can run continuously.

A single-hose unit uses air from within the room to cool its condenser, and then vents it outside. This air is replaced by hot air from outside or other rooms (due to the negative pressure inside the room), thus reducing the unit's effectiveness.[42]

Modern units might have a coefficient of performance of approximately 3 (i.e., 1kW of electricity will produce 3kW of cooling). A dual-hose unit draws air to cool its condenser from outside instead of from inside the room, and thus is more effective than most single-hose units.

Evaporative coolers, sometimes called "swamp coolers", do not have a compressor or condenser. Liquid water is evaporated on the cooling fins, releasing the vapor into the cooled area. Evaporating water absorbs a significant amount of heat, the latent heat of vaporisation, cooling the air. Humans and animals use the same mechanism to cool themselves by sweating.

Evaporative coolers have the advantage of needing no hoses to vent heat outside the cooled area, making them truly portable. They are also very cheap to install and use less energy than refrigerative air conditioners.

Air-conditioning engineers broadly divide air conditioning applications into comfort and process applications.

Comfort applications aim to provide a building indoor environment that remains relatively constant despite changes in external weather conditions or in internal heat loads.

Air conditioning makes deep plan buildings feasible, for otherwise they would have to be built narrower or with light wells so that inner spaces received sufficient outdoor air via natural ventilation. Air conditioning also allows buildings to be taller, since wind speed increases significantly with altitude making natural ventilation impractical for very tall buildings.[citation needed] Comfort applications are quite different for various building types and may be categorized as:

The structural impact of an air conditioning unit will depend on the type and size of the unit.[45]

In addition to buildings, air conditioning can be used for many types of transportation, including automobiles, buses and other land vehicles, trains, ships, aircraft, and spacecraft.

Air conditioning is common in the US, with 88% of new single-family homes constructed in 2011 including air conditioning, ranging from 99% in the South to 62% in the West.[46] In Canada, air conditioning use varies by province. In 2013, 55% of Canadian households reported having an air conditioner, with high use in Manitoba (80%), Ontario (78%), Saskatchewan (67%), and Quebec (54%) and lower use in Prince Edward Island (23%), British Columbia (21%), and Newfoundland and Labrador (9%).[47] In Europe, home air conditioning is generally less common. Southern European countries such as Greece have seen a wide proliferation of home air-conditioning units in recent years.[48] In another southern European country, Malta, it is estimated that around 55% of households have an air conditioner installed.[49] In India AC sales have dropped by 40% [clarification needed] due to higher costs and stricter energy efficiency regulations.[50]

Process applications aim to provide a suitable environment for a process being carried out, regardless of internal heat and humidity loads and external weather conditions. It is the needs of the process that determine conditions, not human preference. Process applications include these:

In both comfort and process applications, the objective may be to not only control temperature, but also humidity, air quality, and air movement from space to space.

Air-conditioning systems can promote the growth and spread of microorganisms,[51] such as Legionella pneumophila, the infectious agent responsible for Legionnaires' disease, or thermophilic actinomycetes; however, this is only prevalent in poorly maintained water cooling towers. As long as the cooling tower is kept clean (usually by means of a chlorine treatment), these health hazards can be avoided.

Conversely, air conditioning (including filtration, humidification, cooling and disinfection) can be used to provide a clean, safe, hypoallergenic atmosphere in hospital operating rooms and other environments where an appropriate atmosphere is critical to patient safety and well-being. Excessive air conditioning can have a negative effect on skin, drying it out,[52] and can also cause dehydration.[53]

Innovation in air conditioning technologies continues, with much recent emphasis placed on energy efficiency. Production of the electricity used to operate air conditioners has an environmental impact, including the release of greenhouse gasses.

Cylinder unloaders are a method of load control used mainly in commercial air conditioning systems. On a semi-hermetic (or open) compressor, the heads can be fitted with unloaders which remove a portion of the load from the compressor so that it can run better when full cooling is not needed. Unloaders can be electrical or mechanical.

In an automobile, the A/C system will use around 4 horsepower (3kW) of the engine's power, thus increasing fuel consumption of the vehicle.[54]

Most refrigerants used for air conditioning contribute to global warming, and many also deplete the ozone layer.[55] CFCs, HCFCs, and HFCs are potent greenhouse gases when leaked to the atmosphere.

The use of CFC as a refrigerant was once common, being used in the refrigerants R-11 and R-12 (sold under the brand name Freon-12). Freon refrigerants were commonly used during the 20th century in air conditioners due to their superior stability and safety properties. However, these chlorine-bearing refrigerants reach the upper atmosphere when they escape.[56] Once the refrigerant reaches the stratosphere, UV radiation from the Sun homolytically cleaves the chlorine-carbon bond, yielding a chlorine radical. These chlorine radicals catalyze the breakdown of ozone into diatomic oxygen, depleting the ozone layer that shields the Earth's surface from strong UV radiation. Each chlorine radical remains active as a catalyst until it binds with another radical, forming a stable molecule and breaking the chain reaction.

Prior to 1994, most automotive air conditioning systems used R-12 as a refrigerant. It was replaced with R-134a refrigerant, which has no ozone depletion potential. Old R-12 systems can be retrofitted to R-134a by a complete flush and filter/dryer replacement to remove the mineral oil, which is not compatible with R-134a.

R-22 (also known as HCFC-22) has a global warming potential about 1,800 times higher than CO2.[57] It was phased out for use in new equipment by 2010, and is to be completely discontinued by 2020. Although these gasses can be recycled when air conditioning units are disposed of, uncontrolled dumping and leaking can release gas directly into the atmosphere.

In the UK, the Ozone Regulations[58] came into force in 2000 and banned the use of ozone depleting HCFC refrigerants such as R22 in new systems. The Regulation banned the use of R22 as a "top-up" fluid for maintenance between 2010 (for virgin fluid) and 2015 (for recycled fluid). This means that equipment that uses R22 can still operate, as long as it does not leak. Although R22 is now banned, units that use the refrigerant can still be serviced and maintained.[59]

In most countries[which?] the manufacture and use of CFCs has been banned or severely restricted due to concerns about ozone depletion (see also Montreal Protocol).[60] In light of these environmental concerns, beginning on November 14, 1994, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has restricted the sale, possession and use of refrigerant to only licensed technicians, per rules under sections 608 and 609 of the Clean Air Act.[61]

As an alternative to conventional refrigerants, other gases, such as CO2 (R-744), have been proposed.[62] R-744 is being adopted as a refrigerant in Europe and Japan. It is an effective refrigerant with a global warming potential of 1, but it must use higher compression to produce an equivalent cooling effect.[citation needed]

In 1992, a non-governmental organization[who?] was spurred by corporate executive policies and requested that a European lab find substitute refrigerants. This led to two alternatives, one a blend of propane (R290) and isobutane (R60Oa), and one of pure isobutane.[17][20] Industry resisted change in Europe until 1993, and in the U.S. until 2011, despite some supportive steps in 2004 and 2008 (see Refrigerant Development above).[26][63]

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Basement Finishing System Unlimited panels are breathable and wont trap moisture, reducing the chances of rot and mold growth.*

What would you do with an extra room in your house? Basement Finishing System Unlimited can transform your wasted space into an office, a play room, a family room, or a home theater, for less than the cost of building an addition.

Dont trap your plumbing and other mechanical equipment behind drywall. Basement Finishing System Unlimited panels remove easily for quick access to your foundation walls.

The Owens Corning Basement Finishing System Unlimited is installed by a certified installer who can transform your basement in about two weeks, so you get a new room instead of a lengthy construction project. Best of all, its backed by a Lifetime Limited Warranty.**

The Basement Finishing System Unlimited features insulated panels that keep out cold and control sound to make rooms quieter, so you can use your basement to watch movies or as a kids playroom without disturbing the rest of the house.

The Basement Finishing System Unlimited panels are paintable and resemble the look of drywall.

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Make your basement living space as unique as you are with the new Owens Corning Basement Finishing System Unlimited. The new system features many of the great benefits as the Original Fabric Basement Finishing System, but IT CAN BE PAINTED! The new Basement Finishing System Unlimited allows you to customize your basement space by allowing you to paint it, just as you would a space finished with drywall. But unlike drywall, The Owens Corning Basement Finishing System Unlimited absorbs sound and resists mold and mildew. Once you take some time to compare The Owens Corning Basement Finishing System Unlimited to drywall and other systems out in the market, youll see that theres really no comparison!

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Nancy Kerrigan and her family had a drywall basement constructed approximately 15 years ago and used it often. Over time, the basement started to smell musty and also became moldy. They knew they had to do something soon to get their basement back in a livable condition!

A few months ago, Nancy and her family visited their local fair, saw the Owens Corning Basement Finishing System booth, and decided to inquire more online when they got home. After doing some research on our product and seeing what we had to offer, they realized this was the perfect fit for their familys lifestyle. They were ready to get their basement space back for their three kids to enjoy!

We caught the entire transformation on camera, from the drywall tear-out to the completed Owens Corning Basement Finishing System! A BIG Thank You to Nancy and her family for sharing their story with us!

If you are looking to remodel your basement utilizing a product that provides an assortment of practical benefits, consider installing the Owens Corning Basement Finishing System. Reviews from many homeowners show that the innovative features of this system can provide several advantages over drywall. Thats because the Basement Finishing System has been designed specifically for use in the basement environment.

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Basement floors can be troublesome as they made be uneven, prone to moisture or just plain cold. So be sure to take proper steps to level your basement floor, add vapor barriers or consider heated floors to enjoy your remodeled basement.

You may also want to take into account a flooring types ability to survive a flood, burst pipe or other high water issues to which basements can be victim. But once you settle those concerns, you have plenty of options for basement flooring from the classic carpet and vinyl to more modern cork and floating floors.

Concrete

Increasing numbers of homeowners decide to enhance the existing concrete in their basement instead of covering it up. Stained and painted concrete floors offer many benefits, including their suitability for people with allergies. Skilled contractors can reproduce the look of slate, tile and marble, or they can apply dyes, paints and stencils in a variety of designs.

While decorative concrete may cost more than some other types of flooring, its proponents point to the long life expectancy of this material. Even cracks in the floor can be considered an attractive rustic feature as long as they do not reflect structural problems. Those concerned by the slippery nature of high-gloss sealers can add a non-slip additive to sealer or stain before application.

This basement utilizes tile flooring in the kitchen and bar area and carpet for the living space. (Photo courtesy of Angie's List member Rajinder S.)

Carpet

Carpeting remains a popular flooring option for finished basements because of its warmth underfoot. As long as the basement is moisture-free, carpet is a practical option for many homeowners. The cost of carpet and padding varies widely, depending on quality.

Benefits of carpet include the variety of colors and styles available, its sound-muffling qualities and many pricing options. Drawbacks include wear in traffic areas, increased maintenance in comparison to hard flooring options and its inability to survive a flooding event.

Ceramic tile

Reasonably priced ceramic tiles come in a multitude of styles and colors and can be arranged in a custom pattern of the homeowners choosing. Flooring tiles are very durable, stain-resistant, impervious to moisture and easy to maintain. Drawbacks include coldness and the tendency of grout to discolor over time.

Cork

Cork is an eco-friendly flooring material that can be installed over an existing floor or concrete. Cork is derived from the bark of the cork tree, meaning trees are not cut down during harvesting. Cork flooring is durable and has good insulating qualities, but if you choose cork flooring for your basement, make sure you choose a type that is recommended for a basement environment as not all cork flooring is appropriate for basements.

It resists mold, mildew and rot and is easy to clean and maintain. These floors require an acrylic finish to prevent scratches. A polyurethane coat will extend the life of this flooring, and it should be reapplied after 10 years in situations featuring normal wear and tear.

Engineered wood

Engineered wood consists of layered plywood that looks like hardwood but is thinner, more durable and water-resistant. Advantages include the ability to expand and contract with changes in moisture and temperature. The fact that it comes pre-finished is a benefit for many homeowners.

Drawbacks include cost and the fact that it may be refinished only once due to the thinness of its veneer. Maintenance consists of vacuuming and damp mopping. Standing water must be mopped up immediately.

Linoleum

Linoleum is another environmentally friendly flooring option for basements. Homeowners looking for numerous design options and ease of maintenance will enjoy linoleum. Drawbacks include a tendency to stain because of its porous nature and a lack of warmth under the feet. This flooring material is durable, but when damage does occur, repairs can be difficult.

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Basement Remodeling | Angies List

Planning and getting started

Your basement can be more than a utility and storage area. With some forethought and good techniques, you can make it as warm, comfortable and inviting as any other room in the house. But, make no mistake about it: Finishing a basement is a big job. In this article, we'll focus on the framing and some unique problems, such as:

Get started by making a scale drawing of your plans to submit to your local building inspections department. Your plan should include wall dimensions, window and door sizes, and each room's purpose (e.g., family, bedroom, etc.) along with any special features like fireplaces. Some rooms may require large windows, called egress windows, for fire safety. Ask your building inspector if you need them. Also measure the future finished ceiling height and low-hanging pipes or ducts that'll lower headroom. Sketch the details of the exterior wall construction you intend to use as we show in this article. If youre uncertain about the best use of space, hire an architect to help with the design. The permit itself will outline at what stages inspections are required. If you choose to do your own electrical work, draw up and submit that plan as well. With your plan and permit in hand, clear everything out of the basement and you're ready to go. Walk around the basement with caulk and cans of spray foam and plug every gap you can find between framing and masonry and around pipes or wires that penetrate the rim joist or exterior walls. This is your last chance to seal air leaks from the inside.

If you have a wet or damp basement, you must deal with the problem before you get started. To tell if walls are damp from exterior water or just condensation from humid interior air, tape a 2-ft. square sheet of plastic to the masonry. If moisture collects on the front of the plastic, you have condensation. The method we show for finishing will take care of that problem. If moisture collects on the backside after a few days, then water is wicking through the foundation wall from outside. The basement should be treated the same as if it were leaky. If you have regular seepage or water puddling after storms (even once every few years), you have to fix it permanently before finishing. Remedies for damp or wet basements can be as simple as rerouting downspouts, regrading slopes away from foundation walls, or applying water-resistant paints to interior surfaces. As a last resort, hire a pro to install perimeter drains and a sump pump. The bottom line is that it's senseless to spend time and money finishing a basement if leaks or moisture will ruin your work or cause mold to grow.

Cut 3/4-in. extruded polystyrene insulation to fit against the rim joists. Spread a 1/4-in. bead of adhesive on masonry walls and press the sheets into place.

Caulk all gaps and seams between the framing and the foam along the rim joists with more foam to seal potential air leaks.

Snap chalk lines 4 in. away from the insulation on the exterior walls. Then cut 2x4 bottom and top plates and lay out stud locations every 16 in. on each plate.

Squeeze a 1/4-in. bead of construction adhesive to bottom plates and position them. Then predrill with a hammer drill and anchor them with concrete screws.

Nail 2x4 blocking about every 3 ft. into the first floor joist to support the top plate. Toe-screw them to the rim joist through the foam.

Plumb from the edge of the bottom plate to the blocking with a straight 2x4 and level. Snap a chalk lin and screw the top plate to the blocking with 3-in. screws.

Measure between the plates at each layout mark and cut each stud to length. Then toenail the studs into place at the top and bottom with two 8d (2-3/8 in.) nails in one side and a third centered on the other side.

Cut half-wall studs so the finished wall is slightly taller than the masonry. Then lay out the stud locations on the plate and nail the studs in place with 16d nails.

Tip the knee walls up and fasten them to the floor. Then fasten blocks through the foam into the masonry at every third stud with 3-in. concrete screws. Plumb and screw the studs to the blocking for a solid wall.

Start the job by gluing 3/4-in. extruded foam insulation to rim joists and foundation walls (Photo 1). Extruded polystyrene foam (imprinted on each sheet; see Photo 5) can be yellow, pink or blue depending on the manufacturer. Avoid expanded foam insulation (the type that has little white beads pressed together) because it isn't as durable and has a lower R-value. Make cuts by snapping chalk lines to mark and then score it with a utility knife as deep as the blade will penetrate. Then snap the sheet just like you cut drywall. Carefully cut around obstructions and fill spaces with small chunks of foam wherever it's needed, working for tight fits. Then caulk seams and gaps to seal against air infiltration (Photo 2). You'll add fiberglass later for a higher R-value. The foam greatly reduces heat transfer through the masonry and framing, and it eliminates the need for a plastic moisture barrier later. Be sure to use adhesive formulated for use with foam (about $3 per tube). Conventional construction adhesive won't work.

Next frame the stud walls 1/2 in. away from the foam (or more if your foundation's uneven). We show the stick framingmethod of wall building. That means that you cut, lay out and install the top and bottom 2x4s (plates) first (Photos 3 6). Then you'll custom-cut the studs to length and toenail them into place (Photo 7). This method is great for basements because it makes it easy to frame around overhead obstructions and customize stud lengths to handle uneven floors. It can be tough to preframe a wall (as you would normally do with a shed or addition) and raise it in place with a floor overhead. Be sure to use pressure-treated wood for any wood that has contact with concrete surfaces.

Lay out stud locations by laying both plates side by side and then hook your tape measure on one end and mark studs every 16 in. For walls longer than 8 ft., subtract 3/4 in. from each location (e.g., 15-1/4, 31-1/4 in., etc.). That's so drywall will fall in the center of studs. Otherwise, the sheets will fall just short of a stud at each joint.

To position the top plate, tape your level to a straight 2x4 and mark the blocks or joists at either end of the wall. Then snap a chalk line between them. Top plates that run perpendicular to floor joists can be nailed (with 16d nails) or screwed (with 3-in. screws) to the bottom of every other joist. If walls run parallel to floor joists, you'll need to nail or screw blocking in between the floor joists about every 3 ft. or so (Photo 5). For most, running in screws is easier than overhead nailing. Likewise, it's easier to predrill and drive concrete screws rather than pound in concrete nails when fastening bottom plates.

When you're framing half walls (Photo 8), make all of the studs the same length and cut them so the wall will be even with the top of the masonry. The wall may be uneven because of floor inconsistencies, but you can always sight along the top plate and then shim it until it's flat before installing the finished top cap. When plumbing the top of the half wall (Photo 9), be sure to sight along its entire length to make sure it's straight.

Snap a chalk line 2 in. below the lowest portion of ductwork or piping and nail a 2x4 to the wall studs at that point.

Rip 1/2-in. plywood strips to the depth of the soffit (see next photo) and screw 2x2s even with both edges with 1-5/8 in. screws.

Snap a chalk line on the floor joists 2-1/2 in. away from the nearest obstruction and parallel to the wall. Position the assembly along the chalk line and fasten it to the bottom of the floor joists with 3-in. screws.

String a line even with the inside edge of the plywood and use it to determine exact lookout lengths. Nail them in place every 16 in.

Most basements have ductwork and plumbing mounted at the ceiling along an existing wall. Boxing in those pipes and ducts and then drywalling the assembly is the best way to conceal them. The whole structure is called a soffit. Begin by measuring to the floor to find the lowest pipe or duct in the room; that'll define how low the soffit must be. Mark a point 2 in. lower on the wall to allow space for the framing and drywall (Photo 1) and nail on a 2x4 nailing strip using the chalk line to position the bottom of the strip. Then snap another line on the bottom of the joists with a 2-1/2 in. clearance. It's easiest to preassemble the 8-ft. long soffit side sections and screw them to the bottom of the floor joists (Photos 2 and 3). If soffits end at walls, build the walls first.

Mark both sides of partition walls with chalk lines, then center and nail 2x6 backer boards in walls that they join.

Cut the plates and lay out stud positions every 16 in. Mark the door rough opening as well (see Photo 3).

Assemble the wall as shown in Photos 5 7. Use 81-in. trimmers and a single flat 2x4 header over doors. Then measure, cut and nail in header cripples. Finish cutting out bottom plates in door openings with a handsaw.

Partition walls are any walls that aren't against exterior foundation walls or walls that support floors above. Lay out partition walls by snapping chalk lines to mark both sides of the bottom plates (Photo 1). That keeps you from building walls on the wrong side of single lines! Mark door openings on the floor (Photo 2) to avoid putting glue under doors. Frame partition walls as you did the outside walls, again installing blocking between joists wherever it's needed. Add 2x6 backers on walls that meet partitions (Photo 1). They provide support and nailers for drywall. Before you tie the partition walls to exterior stud walls (non-masonry, without foam), staple 2-ft. wide strips of polyethylene over the 2x6 backers (Photo 2). That way you'll be able to seal this type of outside wall with a continuous moisture barrier in cooler climate zones.

In a basement, the top and bottom plates are often different lengths. That's because top plates may project past foundation walls and be longer or run into soffits and be shorter. (See both cases in Photo 3.) When you line up the plates to mark stud locations, be sure to account for differences (Photo 2).

Frame the door openings 2-1/2 in. higher and 2-1/2 in. wider than the door you're installing. This rough opening allows adequate space for the door plus its frame. Use a regular stud plus a trimmer on each side of the door (Photo 3). If you have low headroom, you may need to cut your doors down or special-order shorter ones. Remember to allow overhead space for the door trim. Trim that's either missing or ripped too narrow over doors with inadequate clearance will really detract from the appearance of the room.

TIP: Partially cut through the underside of the bottom plate at the edges of the door rough opening to make removal easier later on.

Frame around ceiling valves with 2x2s and leave an access hole in the drywall. Cover it with an air grate.

Frame around protruding plumbing with 2x6s nailed to adjoining studs. Frame cleanouts for an access panel.

Fur down ceilings with 2x4s so the drywall will conceal surface-mounted pipes and/or wires.

Nearly every basement has something that will project past finished surfaces. That can include beams, posts, drain lines, water piping or surface mounted wires. Its a simple matter to frame or fur out around projections and then drywall and finish them to blend in with surrounding surfaces. You'll have to maintain access to other things like electrical junction boxes and plumbing shutoffs and cleanouts. If you need future access to anything, just frame around it and cut out the opening when you drywall (Photo 1). Then, after taping and painting, screw a return air grate over the opening to conceal it but still have access. Return air grates are available in various sizes for about $5 at home centers. Check the sizes of available grates and frame the accesses slightly smaller.

Sometimes furring down part of or the entire ceiling is the best way to bury surface-mounted pipes or wires. Use either 2x4s or 2x2s running perpendicular to the joists to add 1-1/2 in. of dead space so you can drywall over the top of everything (Photo 3). Be sure to run all the wiring and other things you might want before hanging the drywall.

If you have a lot of deep projections from the ceiling or you need a lot of access, consider installing a suspended ceiling rather than drywalling. The downside is that you'll lose at least a few additional inches of ceiling height.

Finish round steel columns by framing around them with 2x4s. You can then face the framing with drywall or decorative wood as shown in the opening photo.

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How to Finish a Basement: Framing and Insulating - Family ...