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Architects

Architects performing live in Germany in 2015. From left to right: guitarist Adam Christianson, bassist Alex Dean, drummer Dan Searle, vocalist Sam Carter and guitarist Tom Searle.

Architects are a British metalcore band from Brighton, England. The band currently consists of vocalist Sam Carter, drummer Dan Searle, bassist Alex Dean and guitarist Adam Christianson. The band's first name was Inharmonic, which was swiftly changed to Counting the Days, and finally to Architects after a couple of years. They have released seven studio albums and one split EP with Dead Swans to date.

They released their debut album Nightmares in 2006 through In at the Deep End records. After the departure of their original vocalist, Matt Johnson, Sam Carter joined the band and made his first appearance on Architects' second album Ruin released in 2007 through United by Fate records. In 2009 the band released Hollow Crown through Century Media records. They then released their fourth album The Here And Now in 2011, which showed the band taking a step in a more melodic "clean-cut post-hardcore" direction.[1] Upon its release the album was well received by critics, but was panned by their fanbase.[2] The next year Architects returned to their original style with their fifth album Daybreaker, which featured more politicised lyrics[3] as opposed to the violent and comedic lyrics prominent throughout their older work.[4] Their sixth album Lost Forever // Lost Together was released in 2014 through Epitaph Records. Their seventh album All Our Gods Have Abandoned Us was released on 27 May 2016, also through Epitaph.

All members of the band are vegan,[5] having turned to veganism after watching several documentaries on the subject.[6][note 1] The band is also a promoter of the Sea Shepherd Conservation Society, with Carter being one of its British ambassadors.[8] On 20 August 2016, lead guitarist, primary songwriter, keyboardist and founding member Tom Searle died after a three-year battle with skin cancer.[9] The song "C.A.N.C.E.R" on Lost Forever // Lost Together focuses on his dealing with the cancer.[10]

However, the band went on to continue the upcoming tour in Tom's honor, and went on to play in Australia with the popular British metalcore band, Bring Me The Horizon. The future of the band is currently unknown, following Tom's passing.

All of the original members of Architects grew up around Brighton, East Sussex and were very active within the local music scene prior to forming the band. Sam Carter, who was a drummer and studied drums at the Brighton Institute of Modern Music before joining the band, had performed in multiple local bands as a drummer and sometimes a singer; one of these bands had supported Enter Shikari in Brighton.[6]

Architects was founded in 2004 by drummer Dan Searle and his twin brother,[4] guitarist Tom Searle, The project was called "Counting the Days" until it blossomed into what is now known as "Architects" with original vocalist Matt Johnson, guitarist Tim Hillier-Brook and Tim Lucas on bass guitar. In 2006 the band's original bassist, Tim Lucas, decided to leave the band to pursue his academic career. He was replaced by Alex Dean. The band had travelled around the UK on many tours supporting a number of different bands (Beecher, Bring Me the Horizon) in support of their debut album Nightmares. Because of the age of the band members in the early years they had to book weeks of holiday off at college to do tours round the country.[12]

Just six months after the release of Nightmares, Architects original vocalist Matt Johnson left the band. Dan Searle said that after Johnson left the band they all saw Sam Carter performing with other local bands and decided it was an "easy choice".[13] Ali Dean approached Carter while he was at work and had a few band practices.[6] When Carter joined as Architects' new lead vocalist he made his on-stage debut by performing the song "The Darkest Tomb". After this amicable departure, Matt Johnson went on to form the band Whitemare with ex-members of Johnny Truant and Centurion, and also briefly Architects guitarist Tim Hillier-Brook on bass.[14] They released their second album Ruin on 25 June 2007.[15] Despite releasing their dbut album Nightmares the previous year the band felt they have developed as songwriters a lot and wished to release something quicker.[15] Carter felt pressure when writing the lyrics for Ruin as he had a six-week period between joining 'Architects' and going into the studio to record.[16] Dan Searle had commented that Carter drew from more personal experience in his lyrics than their previous singer Johnson.[15] They supported Suicide Silence in 2007 on The Cleansing The Nation Tour in the United States.[8]

In early 2008, they released a Split EP with UK band Dead Swans. The split EP featured two songs from each artist. Architects' contributed: We're All Alone and Broken Clocks. While Dead Swans contributed: In the Half Light and Swallow. The song We're All Alone was later worked into Hollow Crown. The band said that they wanted to do release the album in the effort to show people they are still progressing their style.[13] The split EP was well received by British music press with review scores of 7/10 from Metal Hammer,[17] 8/10 from Rock Sound,[18] A 7.5 was given by Terrorizer for Architects' side of the ep[19] and four "K"s out of 5 from Kerrang!.[20] The release was followed by a double headed tour of the UK.

In May 2008, Architects announced that they had been signed to Century Media Records for a three album deal. Architects became the first British band that Century Media had signed since Napalm Death.[21] Dean stated that the signing was important for the band "to be part of such an established label and it's absolutely sweet that our records are gonna [sic] be out worldwide."[22] Dan Searle described Century Media's support matching "our ambition to push this band as far as we can." The announcement of their signing to Century Media was coupled with the re-release of their second album Ruin globally with the added bonus track Broken Clocks.[23] In November 2008 the band embarked on the Never Say Die! Tour, a European tour with Parkway Drive as the headline act and also support from Unearth, Despised Icon, Protest the Hero, Whitechapel and Carnifex.[24]

On 26 January 2009 Architects made their Century Record dbut with their third studio album Hollow Crown. It was released in the United Kingdom and Australia on 26 January 2009, 10 February in the United States and Canada, 20 February in Continental Europe and 21 February in Japan. The band recorded the album in July 2008 after the announcement of joining Century Media's roster.[23] Dan Searle in interview was asked why the band gave it the title and he stated "depending on who you ask in the band! To me it refers to those people you meet in life that earn nothing, but are given everything."[13] For the initial promotion of the album the band completed a 19 date headline tour of the United Kingdom with support from Misery Signals and A Textbook Tragedy.[25] in early 2009 the band supported Parkway Drive along with August Burns Red on the Parkway Drive: The DVD tour in Australia. In October and November 2009 they headlined the second Never Say Die! Tour United Kingdom dates, whereas Despised Icon headlined the Mainland European dates. The line also included Horse the Band, As Blood Runs Black, Iwrestledabearonce, Oceano and The Ghost Inside.[26] In January 2009 Tom Searle had believed the band had toured across North America and Europe in 17 separate tours.[12]

Architects announced that the first single from the upcoming fourth album, would be entitled Day in Day Out, and was premired on Daniel P. Carter's BBC Radio 1 podcast The Rock Show on 30 August 2010.[27] The band headlined tours of the UK in October 2010 with Norma Jean, Devil Sold His Soul and Lower Than Atlantis supporting and Australia in December with Comeback Kid as co-headliners and This is Hell and Rolo Tomassi supporting.

On 19 January 2011, Architects' fourth album The Here and Now was released. The album was recorded across 2010 from May till June at The Omen Room Studios in California and featured guest vocals from Andrew Neufeld of Comeback Kid and Greg Puciato of The Dillinger Escape Plan.[28] The album was seen as going in a more commercial direction from the rest of the band's work.[29] The album sold 900 copies in the United States in its first week and debuted at number 47 on the US Top Heatseekers album charts and number 57 on the UK Album Charts.[30] Upon its release the album was well received by critics. Drummer Dan Searle when describing the sound on the album in an interview believe it was a massive departure but also a logical progression for the band, saying: "I completely understand that we are known for being a technical band but its just not what we want to write any more, I think if you look at the way we have evolved over the last few records you could see it coming. We started writing technical music when we were 16 and have spent the years since slowly moving away from it, it feels like different people wrote those songs."[31] When looking back at the album in hindsight the band has always seen the period the record was released in as one of difficulty and lack of confidence in themselves.[6]

In February 2011, Architects announced the departure of bassist Alex Dean, due to family commitments. On 3 July 2011 it was announced that Dean had rejoined the band. When Dean commented on the short 5-month split from the band he said "I'm very happy to be able to say that I'm back, being able to stay at home for the past few months have given my family and I the opportunity to adjust to what happened last year and I know it's done us all a lot of good."[34] During this period where Dean was not a part of the band Casey Lagos filled in as a bass guitarist on some of the tours.[35]

In April 2011, Bring Me the Horizon as part of their ongoing support for their third album on their international There Is a Hell... Tour Architects was a main support alongside Parkway Drive and supported them in two continents. It started with a European tour, starting in the United Kingdom with The Devil Wears Prada as the opening support for the UK and dubstep group Tek-one opening for the remainder of continental Europe. On 28 April Matt Nicholls broke his arm whilst playing football with members of Bring Me the Horizon, Parkway Drive and Architects, and instead of cancelling the tour Architects' drummer Dan Searle filled in as the drummer, this meant that Bring Me the Horizon's setlist was halved in length.[36] This European Tour Lasted till late August. Then Architects, Parkway Drive and Deez Nuts supported Bring Me the Horizon in North America across September and October.[37]

On 4 December 2011, Architects released a new single entitled Devil's Island. The song was for an at the time unnamed follow up album to The Here and Now. The single was announced in early November, a month before its actual release. As an iTunes bonus b-side song "Untitled" was added into the single download. In addition to its announcement it was streamed on the band's Facebook page.[38] Both the song and the music video that accompanied the release talk about and deal with the 2011 England riots, with the music video featuring clips of the riots.[32][39] The single itself was well received by critics for its return to the mathcore style of their third album, Hollow Crown.[32] J.J. Nattrass of Bring the noise UK said that "the Track is sweeping and melodic in parts, whilst bursting with high tempo and visceral raw energy in others."[33] In December 2011 the band embarked on a five-day UK headline tour with supporting acts Heights, Tek-One and Deaf Havana as part of supporting the single.[38]

Architects' fifth studio album Daybreaker was released on 28 May 2012 in Europe and 5 June 2012 in the USA.[30] On 16 April 2012, after the album was fully recorded, it was announced that Tim Hillier-Brook would be leaving the band to pursue other projects. Josh Middleton, the frontman of British metal band Sylosis became a touring guitarist until the band decided on a new fifth member.[40]Daybreaker received a mixed reception from critics. Negative critics stated the album's songs were "catchy and occasionally compelling" but "identical and formulaic".[2] The band promoted the Daybreaker album though a collection of 75 shows in 25 countries (over 4 continents, including: Southeast Asia, Australia, North America and Europe ), called The Daybreaker Almost World Tour[41][42][43]

In 2013, the band promoted Daybreaker further, primarily in the United States, first supporting Enter Shikari in the US in March with Crossfaith[44] and then as part of the American Warped Tour 2013 in June.[45] They also played the main stage at Download Festival 2013 at Donington Park, Leicestershire, United Kingdom.[46] Before their large touring schedule in the United States the band wasn't confident in performing as they were "tired of losing money" with their tours in the country and that "[the band] were about ready to give up on America".[47]Architects announced that they were recording their sixth full-length album in September.[47] The band announced they were doing a third tour of the United States in 2013 in November and December with co-headliners Protest The Hero and support from The Kindred and Affiance,[48] as well as plans to go to Australia before 2013 had finished.[47]Architects final performance in support of Daybreaker is their first performance in India at the Saarang culture festival on 11 January 2014 with Romanian rock band Grimus.[49][50][note 2]

In mid-April 2013, Architects released a trailer of a their own documentary "One Hundred Days: The Story Of Architects Almost World Tour". Directed by Tom Welsh, the documentary is a story about Architects' Almost World Tour.[43][52] The funding for the film was done as a community funded project on indiegogo.[43] The band decided to release the film since they had left Century Media.[52] After the target amount had been reached for the film Architects posted a song clip of a new song "Black Blood" online for people to listen.[53] The band's split from Century Media was after their contract expired and due to "a daily occurrence" of falling out.[21] They then joined Epitaph records roster for both an opportunity to break the American market and because of an admiration for bands on their roster like Every Time I Die and Converge.[21]

Their sixth studio album, Lost Forever // Lost Together, was released on 11 March 2014, produced by Henrik Udd and recorded at the Gothenburg based studio Studio Fredman.[54] Two singles were released to promote the record "Naysayer",[55] "Broken Cross"; and a music video for "Gravedigger". In the support of the record's release Architects toured Europe in March and April with Stray from the Path and Northlane as main supports.[56] They then completed a co-headline tour of the United States with letlive. in April and May;[8][57] and then have lined up a supporting tour of The Amity Affliction in Australia,[58] including two headline shows of their own in the country,[59] and a Canadian tour in August and September.[60]

On 18 February 2015, it was announced by Sam Carter that touring member Adam Christianson had become a full-time member of Architects.[citation needed]

On 12 June 2015, Tom Searle announced that the band started demoing new songs and he was excited for the release of a seventh album. On 6 March 2016, Epitaph Records released a new Architects song, "A Match Made in Heaven". It is the first single from All Our Gods Have Abandoned Us, which is set to be released on 27 May.[citation needed] On 11 April, Architects released a second single, "Gone with the Wind". On March 23, Architects announced a release show in Brighton for May 27, supported by Counting Days. Due to unexpectedly high demand, the ticket website accidentally oversold tickets, prompting the band to add a second date on May 28. Architects premiered a third song, "Downfall", on May 20. On the same day, they announced a headline tour in the United Kingdom for November 2016. Architects are also set to play a number of shows in mainland Europe and in North America during the summer.

On 20 August 2016, founding guitarist and songwriter Tom Searle died at the age of 28, after living for three years with melanoma skin cancer. His twin brother and band mate, Dan, confirmed in a statement on the band's official Facebook page that their upcoming Australian tour, as well as their UK and Europe headline tour, would still be taking place as a tribute to his late brother following his passing. On the future of the band, Dan Searle wrote that "We want to carry on, that is important to say, and we will strive to do so, but we will not release any music unless we truly believe that it is something that Tom would have been proud of. Whether or not we can achieve that is something that we will have to discover in time".[61][62]

Architects have been referred to as being "pumped with both controlled rage and unhindered heart, accessible and ambitious, aggressive and beautiful".[12] Considered alongside Enter Shikari as offering metalcore style to more mainstream audiences[63] they have been described variously as metalcore,[4][64][65][66]mathcore,[4][67][68]post-hardcore,[1] post-metalcore[2] and technical metal.[69][70][71][72] Their music is characterised by choppy, complex guitar riffs,[71] the use of obscure time signatures and rhythmic breakdowns,[69] and for their guitarists alternating between a "down-tuned rumble" and "melodic punk" during songs.[73] However the band's music isn't solely been based upon technical proficiency and does use catchy riffs and choruses.[63]

Architects have made various stylistic transitions and evolutions throughout their career,[72] with the band citing their belief that each album should be distinct.[28] On their second album Ruin, the band's sound was heavier and darker sound than on Nightmares.[15]Hollow Crown maintains the aggression and technical proficiency of Ruin while incorporating more melody, catchy riffs and use of singing.[16][68][70] The band also used synthesised instruments such as keyboards and drum machines.[16] The guitars were tuned to Drop B with the lowest string at Ab, giving the "ability to create a really heavy low end sound on the bottom but still give a comfortable degree of tension on the higher strings."[72] A prime example of their signature style is the song 'We're All Alone', with its technical, progressive guitar riffs and heavy, hardcore punk-influenced rhythmic breakdowns.[68][70]

Their fourth album 'The Here and Now' represented a stylistic shift from their previous work considered "ultimately subjective" and "their most diverse".[67] Described as going in a "clean-cut post-hardcore" direction,[1]The Here and Now favours singing over screaming, anthemic choruses and hooks.[67] The album still retains elements of their previous albums, however, including "tortured howls, frenzied riffs, and earth-shattering rhythms, albeit with a slightly more mainstream edge."[74] The album includes the melancholy, glitchy electronica-based 'An Open Letter To Myself' and the rock ballad 'Heartburn'[67][74] both lead into "rousing, fist-pumping choruses". [65] The band's fifth album Daybreaker featured something of a return to the heavier, more aggressive style of their previous albums, balancing this with the melody and hooks of The Here and Now.[1]Daybreaker also features even more melodic, atmospheric tracks than usual, such as 'Truth Be Told, 'Behind The Throne' and 'Unbeliever'.[2][3]

After the release of Daybreaker the band grew confident in playing much heavier music again, and cited that the key influence on the heavier style of their sixth album was to create the best songs for live shows.[75][76] The album also incorporates blastbeats, which have not been used in any of the band's recordings since Hollow Crown.[77]

Vocally Carter is seen as having a coarse and "tortured"[64][78]screaming style and implements melodic singing to counter this.[69] Since Carter's addition to the band's lineup the band always aimed to use more of his singing as their style developed, regardless of reaction from fans.[13] During the writing of The Here and Now in California, Carter got vocal coaching to help develop his singing voice.[28] During these lessons Carter learned a lot about techniques, warm-ups and singing to scales.[28] Carter's harsh vocals have also been compared to British metalcore contemporary Oliver Sykes of Bring Me the Horizon and his "raspy-yelling" vocals.[79]

When Sam Carter joined the band to replace Matt Johnson, drummer Dan Searle had commented that the lyrics Carter wrote drew from more personal experience than those of his predecessor.[15] The lyrics of Hollow Crown focus on a number of themes, with some songs dealing with everyday life like sitting in a car with friends or angst against girls,[80] while some other songs, particularly "Early Grave", "Follow the Water" and "In Elegance", were written about Carter's growing dependence on cannabis and him "struggling against his own instincts and self-destructive obsessions".[16][25] Two songs featured on Hollow Crown "Dead March" and "Left with the Last Minute" feature "call and response-type" lyrics about a stalker and their victim's response to being stalked, respectively.[16][25] For the lyrics of Daybreaker, Carter and Tom Searle collaborated on writing, focusing on what they believed to be "bigger picture" themes,[76] such as the critique of negative aspects of religion and society.[3] Carter and Searle collaborated again on the lyrics of Lost Forever // Lost Together, and in an attempt not to sound like a "broken record", they no longer only addressed political issues, but also focused on themes that everyone can relate to.[76]

Architects' primary musical influences have been described as ranging through artists from the realms of hardcore punk and heavy metal music such as Botch, Converge, Decapitated, Deftones, The Dillinger Escape Plan, Gojira, Hatebreed, Meshuggah, Shadows Fall, Slipknot and Thrice,[4][73] and Alex Henderson of AllMusic considers the band to be influenced by noise rock[64] and math rock.[78]Rock Sound Kevin Stewart-Panko writer sees the band as a "metal/hardcore outfit influenced by Meshuggah's low-end guitar lurch, the throat-shredding howl of Converge's Jake Bannon, The Dillinger Escape Plan's staccato one-two rhythms and breakdowns from the state of Massachusetts is its own mystery."[73] Alter the Press! writer Selina Christoforou considered the band drawing on "the template drawn out by genre-defining bands, such as The Dillinger Escape Plan, Botch, and Coalesce".[70]

When commenting on their influences singer Carter has said that "The Dillinger Escape Plan are such a massive influence on Architects. Back in the day, that's what we wanted to sound like when we were younger".[28] He in the same interview also stated that Thrice's Vheissu is one of his favourite albums.[28]

Current

Former

Touring musicians

One of their tour experiences was being strip searched in Sweden.[90]

Media related to Architects at Wikimedia Commons

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Gainesville Restoration Remodeling for well over a decade now; we have been providing restoration and remodeling services to the residents ofNorth Central Florida. Moreover, we are a full-service construction company specializing in restoration and remodeling. Because, at Gainesville Restoration and Remodeling, want to be your contractor of choice!

Therefore, we have built a solid reputation as a knowledgeable, highly ethical, and collaborative partner; who delivers an exemplary product in a timely and cost-effective manner. Since our hands-on management philosophy allows us to work closely with our clients keeping them intimately involved; worry-free and up-to-date at every step of their construction project.

In addition to Restoration and Remodeling, GRR also provides other related services such as; Water Leak Detection, Storm Damage Cleanup, Sinkhole Repair,and BiohazardCleanup. Furthermore, our construction and reconstruction services include; Home Inspections, New Additions, Garages, Roofing, Bathrooms, Kitchens, Florida Rooms, Flooring, Cabinets, Counter Tops and More. Hence, we are your North Central Florida Construction, Remodeling, and Renovation experts!

Gainesville Restoration and Remodeling owner Chris Pickering was named in the Remodeling Big 50 in 2011 for teamwork.Since 2011 his business has grown from a nine-personteam in GainesvilleFlorida; to a fourteen-personteam with locations in both Gainesville and Ocala. Pickering says, to make it more manageable, Gainesville Restoration uses whiteboards to keep a two-week view on projects. This makes it easy for the salesperson to call the client regularly and let them know whats happening next. There might be times when were not on the job for two or three days; because were templating granite, but we dont want the client to feel ignored during that time. We always keep the client in the loop. Its this attention to detail that has made Gainesville Restoration and remodeling a top contractor in North Central Florida.

So, if you have a project in mind or an emergency situation arises; please give the experts at Gainesville Renovation and Remodeling a call. We are available 24-hours a day/seven days a week for emergency services. In addition, we can work with most insurance companies. At Gainesville Restoration and Remodeling, we will work hard to exceed even your highest expectations!

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Gainesville Restoration Remodeling - Gainesville Florida

An office is generally a room or other area where administrative work is done, but may also denote a position within an organization with specific duties attached to it (see officer, office-holder, official); the latter is in fact an earlier usage, office as place originally referring to the location of one's duty. When used as an adjective, the term "office" may refer to business-related tasks. In legal writing, a company or organization has offices in any place that it has an official presence, even if that presence consists of, for example, a storage silo rather than an office. An office is an architectural and design phenomenon; whether it is a small office such as a bench in the corner of a small business of extremely small size (see small office/home office), through entire floors of buildings, up to and including massive buildings dedicated entirely to one company. In modern terms an office usually refers to the location where white-collar workers are employed. As per James Stephenson,"Office is that part of business enterprise which is devoted to the direction and co-ordination of its various activities."

Offices in classical antiquity were often part of a palace complex or a large temple. The High Middle Ages (10001300) saw the rise of the medieval chancery, which was usually the place where most government letters were written and where laws were copied in the administration of a kingdom. With the growth of large, complex organizations in the 18th century, the first purpose-built office spaces were constructed. As the Industrial Revolution intensified in the 18th and 19th centuries, the industries of banking, rail, insurance, retail, petroleum, and telegraphy dramatically grew, and a large number of clerks were needed, and as a result more office space was required to house these activities. The time and motion study, pioneered in manufacturing by F. W. Taylor led to the Modern Efficiency Desk with a flat top and drawers below, designed to allow managers an easy view of the workers. However, by the midpoint of the 20th century, it became apparent that an efficient office required discretion in the control of privacy, and gradually the cubicle system evolved.[1]

The main purpose of an office environment is to support its occupants in performing their job. Work spaces in an office are typically used for conventional office activities such as reading, writing and computer work. There are nine generic types of work space, each supporting different activities. In addition to individual cubicles, there are also meeting rooms, lounges, and spaces for support activities, such as photocopying and filing. Some offices also have a kitchen area where workers can make their lunches. There are many different ways of arranging the space in an office and whilst these vary according to function, managerial fashions and the culture of specific companies can be even more important. While offices can be built in almost any location and in almost any building, some modern requirements for offices make this more difficult, such as requirements for light, networking, and security. The primary purpose of an office building is to provide a workplace and working environment primarily for administrative and managerial workers. These workers usually occupy set areas within the office building, and usually are provided with desks, PCs and other equipment they may need within these areas.

The structure and shape of the office is impacted by both management thought as well as construction materials and may or may not have walls or barriers. The word stems from the Latin officium, and its equivalents in various, mainly romance, languages. An officium was not necessarily a place, but rather an often mobile 'bureau' in the sense of a human staff or even the abstract notion of a formal position, such as a magistrature. The relatively elaborate Roman bureaucracy would not be equaled for centuries in the West after the fall of Rome, even partially reverting to illiteracy, while the East preserved a more sophisticated administrative culture, both under Byzantium and under Islam.

Offices in classical antiquity were often part of a palace complex or a large temple. There was usually a room where scrolls were kept and scribes did their work. Ancient texts mentioning the work of scribes allude to the existence of such "offices". These rooms are sometimes called "libraries" by some archaeologists and the general press because one often associates scrolls with literature. In fact they were true offices since the scrolls were meant for record keeping and other management functions such as treaties and edicts, and not for writing or keeping poetry or other works of fiction.

The High Middle Ages (10001300) saw the rise of the medieval chancery, which was usually the place where most government letters were written and where laws were copied in the administration of a kingdom. The rooms of the chancery often had walls full of pigeonholes, constructed to hold rolled up pieces of parchment for safekeeping or ready reference, a precursor to the book shelf. The introduction of printing during the Renaissance did not change these early government offices much.

Medieval illustrations, such as paintings or tapestries, often show people in their private offices handling record-keeping books or writing on scrolls of parchment. All kinds of writings seemed to be mixed in these early forms of offices. Before the invention of the printing press and its distribution there was often a very thin line between a private office and a private library since books were read or written in the same space at the same desk or table, and general accounting and personal or private letters were also done there.

It was during the 13th century that the English form of the word first appeared when referring to a position involving duties (ex. the office of the ...). Geoffrey Chaucer appears to have first used the word in 1395 to mean a place where business is transacted in The Canterbury Tales.

As mercantilism became the dominant economic theory of the Renaissance, merchants tended to conduct their business in the same buildings, which might include retail sales, warehousing and clerical work. During the 15th century, population density in many cities reached the point where stand-alone buildings were used by merchants to conduct their business, and there was a developing a distinction between church, government/military and commerce uses for buildings.[1]

With the growth of large, complex organizations such as the Royal Navy and the East India Company in the 18th century, the first purpose-built office spaces were constructed. The Old Admiralty (Ripley Building) was built in 1726 as a three storey U-shaped brick building and was the first purpose built office building in Great Britain. As well as offices, the building housed a board room and apartments for the Lords of the Admiralty. In the 1770s, many scattered offices for the Royal Navy were gathered into Somerset House, the first block purpose-built for office work.[2]

The East India House was built in 1729 on Leadenhall Street as the headquarters from which the East India Company administered its Indian colonial possessions. The Company developed a very complex bureaucracy for the task, which required thousands of office employees to process the necessary paperwork. The Company recognized the benefits of centralized administration, and required that all workers sign in and out at the central office, daily.[3]

As the Industrial Revolution intensified in the 18th and 19th centuries, the industries of banking, rail, insurance, retail, petroleum, and telegraphy dramatically grew in size and complexity. To transact business, an increasing large number of clerks were needed to handle order-processing, accounting, and document filing, with increasingly specialized office space required to house these activities. Most of the desks of the era were top heavy with paper storage bins extending above the desk-work area, giving the appearance of a cubicle and offering the workers some degree of privacy.

The relatively high price of land in the central core of cities lead to the first multi-story buildings, which were limited to about 10 stories until the use of iron and steel allowed for higher structures. The first purpose-built office block was the Brunswick Building, built in Liverpool in 1841.[4] The invention of the safety elevator in 1852 by Elisha Otis saw the rapid escalation upward of buildings.[1] By the end of the 19th century, larger office buildings frequently contained large glass atriums to allow light into the complex and improve air circulation.

By 1906, Sears, Roebuck and Co had opened their mail order and headquarters operation in a 3,000,000-square-foot (280,000m2) building in Chicago, at the time the largest building in the world. The time and motion study, pioneered in manufacturing by F. W. Taylor and later applied to the office environment by Frank and Lillian Gilbreth, led to the idea that managers needed to play an active role in directing the work of subordinates in order to increase the efficiency of the workplace. F.W. Taylor advocated the use of large, open floor plans, and desks that faced supervisors.[5] As a result, in 1915, the Equitable Life Insurance Company in New York City introduced the Modern Efficiency Desk with a flat top and drawers below, designed to allow managers an easy view of the workers. This led to a demand for a large square footages per floor in buildings, and a return to the open spaces that were seen in preindustrial revolution buildings.[1]

However, by the midpoint of the 20th century, it became apparent that an efficient office required discretion in the control of privacy, which is needed to combat tedium linked to poor productivity, and to encourage creativity. In 1964, the Herman Miller (office equipment) company engaged Robert Propst, a prolific industrial designer, who came up with the concept of the Action Office which later evolved into the cubicle office furniture system.[1]

Japanese businesses have set themselves apart from their American counterparts by implementing different techniques in the way they handle business. The Japanese office layout improves work productivity, harmony in the office, and holds every employee accountable for the work they produce. The type of office layout used in Japan is called an open plan, and relies on ergonomics to help make employees as productive as possible. The Japanese open office layout allows them to use an organizational structure known as the horizontal structure. In the typical Japanese office there are no walls dividing desks, no cubicles, and no individual offices. Also they are able to implement policies using the ringi-sho consensus.

In order to get group members to work effectively in the open office floor plan the use of island style desks are used. The most dominant feature of the Japanese island style office layout is that each group forms an island. Kageyu Noro, Goroh Fujimaki & Shinsuke Kishi, researches of ergonomics in the work place, stated, Japanese offices have traditionally adhered to island layouts because these reflect the Japanese style of teamwork and top-down style of management.[6] The group leader will then sit at the prominent position and ensure productivity.

The group leader will assign a task to the group, and each member of the group then receives their individual task to complete. Island style seating also gives the group the benefit of being able to speak to one another at any time, and ask for help if needed. Being in such close proximity to one another in the office gives another advantage to the supervisor in that he can call an uchi-awase. Uchi-awase is an informal meeting in order to get an important message across, and also allows all members of the team to be creative in the office. The open office layout allows for this because there are hardly any independent rooms or enclosures. If the supervisor stands at his desk he can glance at his associates and easily call them over.,[7] according to Durlabhji, Subhash, Norton E. Marks, and Scott Roach, authors of Japanese Business Cultural Perspective. Once all individual tasks are complete the group then combines each persons work and the project is the put together as a whole and returned to the supervisor. The work is viewed as a team effort and that each member of the group receives equal credit for being part of a team completing the goal assigned. The group itself holds each member accountable for ensuring that the work is getting done, and that no one individual is doing more work than another. Another motivating factor is that the groups boss is also seated at the same desk, and the effect that this has on the individuals is that they must work hard just like the boss. The role of having an open lay out with island type seating allows the office to be structured so the employees are put together as teams.

The type of organizational structure found within the Japanese office is known as a horizontal structure. According to Andrew, Ghillyer, author of Management Now, Horizontal structure is an organization structure consisting of two groups: the first composed of senior management responsible for strategic decisions and policies and the second composed of empowered employees working together in different process teams; also known as a team structure.[8] The benefit of using this type of structure is that hierarchy is flattened to reduce supervision, teams are able to self-manage, team performance, not just the individual is rewarded, and training is highly emphasized amongst all employees. With the heightened sense of empowerment and responsibility workers are motivated to complete objectives in a timely manner. Having the office structured horizontally allows for the easy communication of introducing new policies and ideas amongst the groups.

Ringisho refers to the concept of submitting proposals and making decisions off those ideas. By unifying everyone together in the Japanese office it helps to make better informed decisions on policies of the company that all managers and employees have input on. The idea behind this is to get a hold of various thinking individuals to see if there is a good way in writing their policies that come to benefit the company better. Richard Lewis, author of When Cultures Collide, states Suggestions, ideas and inventions make their way up the company hierarchy by a process of collecting signatures among workers and middle managers. Many people are involved. Top executives take the final step in ratifying items that have won sufficient approval.[9] With this system in place changes to policies are only passed if there is an overall consensus to pass it. Allowing each group to have a say on which policies should be implemented improves overall job satisfaction and harmony throughout the office.

The way Japanese offices are structured allow them to be more efficient when conducting business. The efficiency at which they operate has been noticed by such companies General Motors, Ford, Motorola, and Chrysler Company. They continue to look for other ways to be more efficient and productive with the office layout and employee productivity.

The main purpose of an office environment is to support its occupants in performing their jobpreferably at minimum cost and to maximum satisfaction. With different people performing different tasks and activities, however, it is not always easy to select the right office spaces. To aid decision-making in workplace and office design, one can distinguish three different types of office spaces: work spaces, meeting spaces and support spaces. For new, or developing businesses, remote satellite offices and project rooms, Serviced Offices can provide a simple solution and provide all of the former types of space.

Work spaces in an office are typically used for conventional office activities such as reading, writing and computer work. There are nine generic types of work space, each supporting different activities.

Open office: An open work space for more than ten people, suitable for activities which demand frequent communication or routine activities which need relatively little concentration

Team space: A semi-enclosed work space for two to eight people; suitable for teamwork which demands frequent internal communication and a medium level of concentration

Cubicle: A semi-enclosed work space for one person, suitable for activities which demand medium concentration and medium interaction

Private office: An enclosed work space for one person, suitable for activities which are confidential, demand a lot of concentration or include many small meetings

Shared office: An enclosed work space for two or three people, suitable for semi-concentrated work and collaborative work in small groups

Team room: An enclosed work space for four to ten people; suitable for teamwork which may be confidential and demands frequent internal communication

Study booth: An enclosed work space for one person; suitable for short-term activities which demand concentration or confidentiality

Work lounge: A lounge-like work space for two to six people; suitable for short-term activities which demand collaboration and/or allow impromptu interaction

Touch down: An open work space for one person; suitable for short-term activities which require little concentration and low interaction

Meeting spaces in an office are typically used interactive processes, be it quick conversations or intensive brainstorms. There are six generic types of meeting space, each supporting different activities.

Small meeting room: An enclosed meeting space for two to four persons, suitable for both formal and informal interaction

Large meeting room: An enclosed meeting space for five to twelve people, suitable for formal interaction

Small meeting space: An open or semi-open meeting space for two to four persons; suitable for short, informal interaction

Large meeting space: An open or semi-open meeting space for five to twelve people; suitable for short, informal interaction

Brainstorm room: An enclosed meeting space for five to twelve people; suitable for brainstorming sessions and workshops

Meeting point: An open meeting point for two to four persons; suitable for ad hoc, informal meetings

Support spaces in an office are typically used for secondary activities such as filing documents or taking a break. There are twelve generic types of support space, each supporting different activities.

Filing space: An open or enclosed support space for the storage of frequently used files and documents

Storage space: An open or enclosed support space for the storage of commonly used office supplies

Print and copy area: An open or enclosed support space with facilities for printing, scanning and copying

Mail area: An open or semi-open support space where employees can pick up or deliver their personal mail

Pantry area: An open or enclosed support space where people can get coffee and tea as well as soft drinks and snacks

Break area: A semi-open or enclosed support space where employees can take a break from their work

Locker area: An open or semi-open support space where employees can store their personal belongings

Smoking room: An enclosed support space where employees can smoke a cigarette

Library: A semi-open or enclosed support space for reading of books, journals and magazines

Games room: An enclosed support space where employees can play games (e.g. computer games, pool, darts)

Waiting area: An open or semi-open support space where visitors can be received and can wait for their appointment

Circulation space: Support space which is required for circulation on office floors, linking all major functions

There are many different ways of arranging the space in an office and whilst these vary according to function, managerial fashions and the culture of specific companies can be even more important. Choices include, how many people will work within the same room. At one extreme, each individual worker will have their own room; at the other extreme a large open plan office can be made up of one main room with tens or hundreds of people working in the same space. Open plan offices put multiple workers together in the same space, and some studies have shown that they can improve short term productivity, i.e. within a single software project. At the same time, the loss of privacy and security can increase the incidence of theft and loss of company secrets. A type of compromise between open plan and individual rooms is provided by the cubicle desk, possibly made most famous by the Dilbert cartoon series, which solves visual privacy to some extent, but often fails on acoustic separation and security. Most cubicles also require the occupant to sit with their back towards anyone who might be approaching; workers in walled offices almost always try to position their normal work seats and desks so that they can see someone entering, and in some instances, install tiny mirrors on things such as computer monitors.

While offices can be built in almost any location and in almost any building, some modern requirements for offices make this more difficult. These requirements can be both legal (e.g. light levels must be sufficient) or technical (e.g. requirements for computer networking). Alongside, other requirements such as security and flexibility of layout, has led to the creation of special buildings which are dedicated only or primarily for use as offices. An office building, also known as an office block or business center is a form of commercial building which contains spaces mainly designed to be used for offices.

The primary purpose of an office building is to provide a workplace and working environment primarily for administrative and managerial workers. These workers usually occupy set areas within the office building, and usually are provided with desks, PCs and other equipment they may need within these areas.

An office building will be divided into sections for different companies or may be dedicated to one company. In either case, each company will typically have a reception area, one or several meeting rooms, singular or open-plan offices, as well as toilets.

Many office buildings also have kitchen facilities and a staff room, where workers can have lunch or take a short break. Many office spaces are now also serviced office spaces, which means that those occupying a space or building can share facilities.

Need to mention all building names with company details

Rental rates for office and retail space are typically quoted in terms of money per floor-areatime, usually money per floor-area per year or month. For example, the rate for a particular property may be $29 per square-foot per year ($29/s.f/yr) - $290 per square-meteryear ($290/m2/a), and rates in the area could range $20$50/s.f./yr ($200$500/m2a).

In many countries, rent is typically paid monthly even if usually discussed in terms of years.

Examples:

In a gross lease, the rate quoted is an all-inclusive rate. One pays a set amount of rent per time and the landlord is responsible for all other expenses such as costs of utilities, taxes, insurance, maintenance, and repairs.

The triple net lease is one in which the tenant is liable for a share of various expenses such as property taxes, insurance, maintenance, utilities, climate control, repairs, janitorial services and landscaping.

Office rents in the United States are still recovering from the high vacancy rates that occurred in the wake of the 2008 depression.[10]

The Building Owners and Managers Association (BOMA) classifies office space into three categories: Class A, Class B, and Class C.[11] According to BOMA, Class A office buildings have the "most prestigious buildings competing for premier office users with rents above average for the area". BOMA states that Class A facilities have "high quality standard finishes, state of the art systems, exceptional accessibility and a definite market presence". BOMA describes Class B office buildings as those that compete "for a wide range of users with rents in the average range for the area". BOMA states that Class B buildings have "adequate systems" and finishes that "are fair to good for the area", but that the buildings do not compete with Class A buildings for the same prices. According to BOMA Class C buildings are aimed towards "tenants requiring functional space at rents below the average for the area".[12] The lack of specifics allows considerable room for "fudging" the boundaries of the categories. Oftentimes, the above categories are further modified by adding the plus or minus sign to create subclasses, such as Class A+ or Class B-.[13][14]

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Office - Wikipedia

Xuan Kong Flying Star feng shui or Xuan Kong Fei Xing[1] is one of disciplines in Feng Shui, and is an integration of the principles of Yin Yang, the interactions between the five elements, the eight trigrams, the Lo Shu numbers, and the 24 Mountains, by using time, space and objects[2] to create an astrological chart to analyze positive auras and negative auras of a building.[3]

These include analyzing wealth, mental and physiological states, success, relationships with external parties, and health of the inhabitant.[4]

During the Qing Dynasty, it was popularized by a grandmaster Shen Zhu Ren, with the book that he wrote called Mr. Shen's Study of Xuan Kong, or Shen Shi Xuan Kong Xue.[5]

Flying Star Feng Shui does not limit itself to buildings for the living or Yang Zhai, where rules pertaining to directions equally apply to all built structures; it also applies to grave sites and buildings for spirits or Yin Zhai.[6][7]

In the Lo Shu Square, flying stars are nine numbers.[8]

Each number in the Lo Shu represents one of the Chinese Trigrams and is related to an Element, Family Member, Cardinal, Colour, Hour, Season, Organ, Ailments and many others.[9][10]

The numbers always move to the lower right (northwest), middle right (west), lower left (northeast), upper center (south), lower center (north), upper right (southwest), middle left (east), upper left (southeast) and back to the center.[11]

Time is divided into 20-Year cycles. Each cycle of 20 years is a Period or "Yun". A grand cycle comprises 9 Periods in total which covers a span of 180 years.[12]

Periods are used to describe the cyclical pattern of Qi. Different types of Qi have different strengths and weaknesses with the reference to a particular Period.[13]

Periodic Table on Flying Stars[14][15]

A timely star is positive for a building whereas untimely star is negative. For the current period, Period 8 (Year 20042023), stars Eight, Nine and One are timely (For a building, they are timely if and only if the object placed in that palace is timely). Star Eight is most timely which is often treated as Prosperous and Noble Star. Star Nine and Star One belong to Sheng Qi, a growing energy. The other six stars are regarded as having retreating, killing or dead qi.[16][17][18]

An accurate measurement of direction must be obtained before any system of Feng Shui can be undertaken.[19]

A Luopan is a magnetic compass to determine the precise direction of a structure or an item.

The most important ring on the Luopan is the 24 Mountain ring.[20]

On the 24 Mountain ring, each direction is subdivided into three sectors.

Wu

Ding

172.6 - 187.5

187.6 - 202.5

Yin

Yin

Kun

Shen

217.6 - 232.5

232.6 - 247.5

Yang

Yang

You

Xin

262.6 - 277.5

277.6 - 292.5

Yin

Yin

Qian

Hai

307.6 - 322.5

322.6 - 337.5

Yang

Yang

Zi

Gui

352.6 - 7.5

7.6 - 22.5

Yin

Yin

Gen

Yin

37.6 - 52.5

52.6 - 67.5

Yang

Yang

Mao

Yi

82.6 - 97.5

97.6 - 112.5

Yin

Yin

Xun

Si

127.6 - 142.5

142.6 - 157.5

Yang

Yang

Using the principles of Yin and Yang, the facing of a building is determined by the side of the built structure that receives most Yang Qi.[21][22]

A house is constructed with an architectural frontage with its side that faces whatever landscape feature. The facing of that house is considered by the direction of its frontage which is most Yang in nature.[23]

In apartments, or condominiums, the facing of a unit is determined by the facing of the entire building. If the structure is not an obvious facade, the facing of the unit is determined by the side of the building having the most Yang energy (faces the busiest crowd flow).

Energy in a building can be tapped into by locating a person within a sector that houses the energy. Ideally, living objects should be located in a sector with positive Qi as determined by Flying Star Chart.[24]

The layout of a building is demarcated with a Nine Palace grid, which looks like a tic-tac-toe grid. A door, room or other object's location refers to the square within this grid where the object is found. This may or may not correspond to the direction that the object faces. A door could be located in the southwest sector, but face south. Its location could be also southwest, and its direction to be facing to the south.

Objects are essential to evaluate the Feng Shui of a building.[25][26][27]

Mountain generates Qi. A lush and green mountain or hill generates auspicious Qi, while a barren, rocky rising area will, in general, generate inauspicious energy.[28]

In urban areas, skyscrapers, apartments or any structure that rises from the ground have a similar role to a mountain: generating energy outside. From inside, cupboards, wardrobes, or any furniture that is taller or larger than any others nearby are also considered mountains.[29]

Water conducts Qi. It is essential to identify the cleanliness of the water, the location and the flow of the water formation. These include ponds, lakes, rivers, drains and fountains.[30][31]

In urban areas, highways and lowland play a similar role to waterways, conducting Qi. Inside a building or a room, spinning fan or anything lower than ground level is considered water.[32]

Nine Palace Flying Stars or Jiu Gong Fei Xing is another name of Flying Stars method whereby palaces are the nine sectors overlaid onto a layout of the house.[33]

A Flying Star chart consists of three numbers in each Palace of the Luo Shu. These numbers are called the Base Star, the Facing Star and the Sitting Star.

Constructing a Flying Star Chart requires - The dates that the building was occupied by the owners - The facing of the building[34][35]

For example, if a building is constructed in the year 2003, but the residents do not move in until February 4 of 2004, the Period of the building is 8, not 7.

Period does not change again unless there is major renovation undertaken to the structure.[36]

Creating a Flying Star chart is always begun with the Base Star. Period of the building determines the number occupies the Base Star position of the Central Palace. Base Stars always fly in the Luo Shu path.

Once all the base stars are distributed amongst the nine palaces, the number in Facing Palace on the Luo Shu grid is determined by the facing direction of the building. This number is the facing star.

The Sitting Palace is always opposite of the Facing Palace. The sitting star is the number in the sitting palace.

For instance, in a Period-8 building that faces southwest, the number that locates in Facing Palace is number 5 whereas the number in Sitting Palace is number 2; thus, 5 is Facing Star and 2 is Sitting Star.

Unlike the Base Star, the Facing Star and Sitting Star can fly in either ascending (Yang) order, or descending (Yin) order. The order depends upon two factors on 1 Whether the star is an even number or an odd number, and 2 Which the mountain that the unit faces.

Even-numbered Stars follow a Yin-Yang-Yang form. In a certain number which comprises three mountains, should the mountain that the property faces is Yang, then the numbers fly in ascending order of Lo Shu path, and vice versa.

Odd-numbered Stars follow a Yang-Yin-Yin form. In a certain number which comprises three mountains, should the mountain that the property faces is Yang, then the numbers fly in ascending order of Lo Shu path, and vice versa.

To determine the polarity of number 5 star, go by the polarity of the Period number.

Flying stars can be timely or untimely. The nature of flying star depends on which period is to be referred and which star is being activated.[37]

Activities: Separation, divorce, Drowning, Sea Pirates and criminal affairs, Prostitution, Sex industry

Activities: Disastrous, accidents

Activities: Lawsuit, theft, asthma

Adultery, breaking of family, insanity, suicide by hanging or drug, unethical behavior, unfaithfulness

Activities: Loneliness, rigid, car accident, authority clash

Activities: Theft, robbery, gossips, villains, flirting

Activities: Injury to children, disloyalty, rioting, wealth loss in seconds

Activities: fire, inappropriate sexual affairs, stupidity

[38][39]

Result of overcoming of untimely Flying Star 3 (Wood) upon Star 2 (Earth) Relationship: Son harassing mother-in-law, a male violating a woman Activities: Problems (Conflict, arguments, combat, lawsuit, disharmonies) for mother Health: woman is hurt at the belly (while pregnant) or having stomachache Cure: introduce a red carpet or a painting that is red. Red represents fire and will be able to change the effect that wood has on earth(control cycle) into a wood, fire and earth, supporting cycle.

Result of combination of untimely Flying Stars 2 (Earth) and 5 (Earth) Activities: Accidents, bankruptcy, haunted house, death Health: Serious sickness, cancer of the digestive system

Result of fire combination of untimely Flying Stars 2 (Earth) and 7 (Metal), or of untimely Flying Stars 7 (Metal) and 9 (Fire) Relationship: Lesbian, Male with strong female personalities Activities: Fire, explosion

Result of combination of untimely Flying Stars 3 (Wood) and 7 (Metal) Relationship: Male and female fight Activities: Cripple, armed robbery, burglary, lawsuit, scams Health: foot disease, liver cancer, arm injury by metal

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Flying Star Feng Shui - Wikipedia

Overview

Soon to be a Major Motion Picture starring Denzel Washington and Viola Davis

Winner of the Pulitzer Prize for Drama and the Tony Award for Best Play

"In his work, Mr. Wilson depicted the struggles of black Americans with uncommon lyrical richness, theatrical density and emotional heft, in plays that give vivid voices to people on the frayed margins of life."The New York Times

From August Wilson, author of The Piano Lesson and the 1984-85 Broadway season's best play, Ma Rainey's Black Bottom, is another powerful, stunning dramatic work that has won him numerous critical acclaim including the 1987 Tony Award for Best Play and the Pulitzer Prize. The protagonist of Fences (part of Wilsons ten-part Pittsburgh Cycle plays), Troy Maxson, is a strong man, a hard man. He has had to be to survive. Troy Maxson has gone through life in an America where to be proud and black is to face pressures that could crush a man, body and soul. But the 1950s are yielding to the new spirit of liberation in the 1960s, a spirit that is changing the world Troy Maxson has learned to deal with the only way he can, a spirit that is making him a stranger, angry and afraid, in a world he never knew and to a wife and son he understands less and less.

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From the Publisher

"Fences leaves no doubt that Mr. Wilson is a major writer, combining a poet's ear for vernacular with a robust sense of humor, a sure sense for crackling dramatic incident, and a passionate commitment to a great subject."The New York Times "A blockbuster piece of theater, a major American play."New York Daily News

"An eloquent play... a comedy-drama that is well-nigh flawless."New York Magazine "A moving story line and a hero almost Shakespearian in contour."The Wall Street Journal

"A work of tremendous impact that summons up gratitude for the beauty of its language, the truth of its character, the power of its portrayals."Chicago Tribune

Sacred Fire

Troy Maxson is an angry man. He is an embittered ex-con who has built inner fences around his emotions that no oneneither his son Gory, his wife, Rosa Lee, nor his best friend, Jimcan cross. A proud and bitter man who was prevented by racism from playing major league baseball, Maxson is at fifty- three years of age a garbage collector. While his job allows him to successfully provide for his family, handling garbage represents for him a grim metaphor of his life. As he did during a bit in prison, he once again feels confined, and those who love him most, who depend on him most, suffer most for it.

Through Troy Maxson, playwright August Wilson personifies the man who grew up during the heat of Jim Crow: first proud, hopeful, and passionate in expectation; then emotionally withdrawn and disillusioned from incessant battles with life. Wilson also masterfully illuminates both the strength that lies within community and the adverse impact of a psychology of inequality that devastates the African American male and, in turn, his family and relationships, potentially disintegrating that same community.

Wilson's Pulitzer Prizewinning play offers a bleak picture of what happens to black males when their aspirations go beyond the fences within which they are confined. The fences of a racist society are compounded by the fences black men have often created to ward off loved ones who remind them of their failures. These fences only harbor. pain and hasten an inevitable asphyxiation. Fences is a gripping portrait of a black man dying.

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August Wilson was a major American playwright whose work has been consistently acclaimed as among the finest of the American theater. His first play, Ma Rainey's Black Bottom, won the New York Drama Critics' Circle Award for best new play of 1984-85. His second play, Fences, won numerous awards for best play of the year, 1987, including the Tony Award, the New York Drama Critics' Circle Award, the Drama Desk Award, and the Pulitzer Prize. Joe Turner's Come and Gone, his third play, was voted best play of 1987-1988 by the New York Drama Critics' Circle. In 1990, Wilson was awarded his second Pulitzer Prize for The Piano Lesson. He died in 2005.

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Electrician Occupation

Occupation type

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An electrician is a tradesperson specializing in electrical wiring of buildings, stationary machines, and related equipment. Electricians may be employed in the installation of new electrical components or the maintenance and repair of existing electrical infrastructure.[1] Electricians may also specialize in wiring ships, airplanes, and other mobile platforms, as well as data and cable.

Electricians were originally people who demonstrated or studied the principles of electricity, often electrostatic generators of one form or another.[2]

In the United States, electricians are divided into two primary categories: linemen, who work on electric utility company distribution systems at higher voltages, and wiremen, who work with the lower voltages utilized inside buildings. Wiremen are generally trained in one of five primary specialties: commercial, residential, light industrial, industrial, and low-voltage wiring, more commonly known as Voice-Data-Video, or VDV. Other sub-specialties such as control wiring and fire-alarm may be performed by specialists trained in the devices being installed, or by inside wiremen.

Electricians are trained to one of three levels: Apprentice, Journeyman, and Master Electrician. In the US and Canada, apprentices work and receive a reduced compensation while learning their trade. They generally take several hundred hours of classroom instruction and are contracted to follow apprenticeship standards for a period of between three and six years, during which time they are paid as a percentage of the Journeyman's pay. Journeymen are electricians who have completed their Apprenticeship and who have been found by the local, State, or National licensing body to be competent in the electrical trade. Master Electricians have performed well in the trade for a period of time, often seven to ten years, and have passed an exam to demonstrate superior knowledge of the National Electrical Code, or NEC.

Service electricians are tasked to respond to requests for isolated repairs and upgrades. They have skills troubleshooting wiring problems, installing wiring in existing buildings, and making repairs. Construction electricians primarily focus on larger projects, such as installing all new electrical system for an entire building, or upgrading an entire floor of an office building as part of a remodeling process. Other specialty areas are marine electricians, research electricians and hospital electricians. "Electrician" is also used as the name of a role in stagecraft, where electricians are tasked primarily with hanging, focusing, and operating stage lighting. In this context, the Master Electrician is the show's chief electrician. Although theater electricians routinely perform electrical work on stage lighting instruments and equipment, they are not part of the electrical trade and have a different set of skills and qualifications from the electricians that work on building wiring.

In the film industry and on a television crew the head electrician is referred to as a Gaffer.

Electrical contractors are businesses that employ electricians to design, install, and maintain electrical systems. Contractors are responsible for generating bids for new jobs, hiring tradespeople for the job, providing material to electricians in a timely manner, and communicating with architects, electrical and building engineers, and the customer to plan and complete the finished product.

Many jurisdictions have regulatory restrictions concerning electrical work for safety reasons due to the many hazards of working with electricity. Such requirements may be testing, registration or licensing. Licensing requirements vary between jurisdictions.

An electrician's license entitles the holder to carry out all types of electrical installation work in Australia without supervision. However, to contract, or offer to contract, to carry out electrical installation work, a licensed electrician must also be registered as an electrical contractor. Under Australian law, electrical work that involves fixed wiring is strictly regulated and must almost always be performed by a licensed electrician or electrical contractor.[3] A local electrician can handle a range of work including air conditioning, data, and structured cabling systems, home automation & theatre, LAN, WAN and VPN data solutions, light fittings and installation, phone points, power points, safety inspections and reports, safety switches, smoke alarm installation, inspection and certification and testing and tagging of electrical appliances.

Electrical licensing in Australia is regulated by the individual states. In Western Australia the Department of Commerce tracks licensee's and allows the public to search for individually named/licensed Electricians.[4]

Currently in Victoria the apprenticeship last for four years, during three of those years the apprentice attends trade school in either a block release of one week each month or one day each week. At the end of the apprenticeship the apprentice is required to pass three examinations, one of which is theory based with the other two practically based. Upon successful completion of these exams, providing all other components of the apprenticeship are satisfactory, the apprentice is granted an A Class licence on application to Energy Safe Victoria (ESV).

An A Class electrician may perform work unsupervised but is unable to work for profit or gain without having the further qualifications necessary to become a Registered Electrical Contractor (REC) or being in the employment of a person holding REC status. However, some exemptions do exist.[5]

In most cases a certificate of electrical safety must be submitted to the relevant body after any electrical works are performed.

Safety equipment used and worn by electricians in Australia (including insulated rubber gloves and mats) needs to be tested regularly to ensure it is still protecting the worker. Because of the high risk involved in this trade, this testing needs performed regularly and regulations vary according to state. Industry best practice is the Queensland Electrical Safety Act 2002, and requires six-monthly testing.

Training of electricians follows an apprenticeship model, taking four or five years to progress to fully qualified journeyman level.[6] Typical apprenticeship programs consists of 80-90% hands-on work under the supervision of journeymen and 10-20% classroom training.[7] Training and licensing of electricians is regulated by each province, however professional licenses are valid throughout Canada under Agreement on Internal Trade. An endorsement under the Red Seal Program provides additional competency assurance to industry standards.[8] In order for individuals to become a licensed electricians, they need to have 9000 hours of practical, on the job training. They also need to attend school for 3 terms and pass a provincial exam. This training enables them to become journeyman electricians. Furthermore, in British Columbia, an individual can go a step beyond that and become a FSR, or field safety representative. This credential gives the ability to become a licensed electrical contractor and to pull permits. The various levels of field safety representatives are A,B and C. The only difference between each class is that they are able to do increasingly higher voltage and current work.

Restricted electrical licenses are also issued for specializations such as motor winder, appliance repair, audio/visual installation and HVAC installation.[citation needed]

Competency standards in the UK are defined by the Sector Skills council Summit Skills. Qualifications certificated by awarding organisations such as City and Guilds and EAL are based on these National Occupational Standards. Once qualified and demonstrating the required level of competence an Electrician can register with the JIB (Joint industry Board) for an Electrotechnical Certification Scheme (ECS) card. Electrical competence is required at Level 3 to practice as an electrician in the UK. The electrical industry is one of the few that require a trade test to be achieved prior to being fully qualified. This is known as the AM2.

Electricians can demonstrate further competence by studying further qualifications in Design and Verification of Electrical Installations or in the Test and Inspection of Electrical Installations. These qualifications can be listed on the reverse of the JIB card.

The Electricity at Work Regulations are the statutory document that covers electrical installations. Further information is provided in the non-statutory document BS7671 - Requirements for Electrical Installations otherwise known as the Wiring Regulations currently (2013) in their 17th Edition. Installations that comply with BS7671 are deemed to have met the EAWR. Electrical Installation in domestic properties is governed by Part P of the Building Regulations and electricians have to register certain aspects of their work in domestic properties with the local building control authority.

With the exception of the work described in Part P of the Building Regulations there are no laws that prevent anyone from carrying out electrical work in the UK. A possible result of this is that during 2010/11 and in 2011/12 there were 3,822 domestic electrical fires in Great Britain, resulting in 14 deaths. Organisations such as the Electrical Safety Council are working hard to educate the public not to use electricians who are not fully qualified or competent and to check the ElectricSafe register to ensure an Electrician has been deemed competent.

The United States does not offer nationwide licensing and electrical licenses are issued by individual states. There are variations in licensing requirements, however, all states recognize three basic skill categories: level electricians. Journeyman electricians can work unsupervised provided that they work according to a master's direction. Generally, states do not offer journeyman permits, and journeyman electricians and other apprentices can only work under permits issued to a master. Apprentices may not work without direct supervision.[9]

Before electricians can work unsupervised, they are usually required to serve an apprenticeship lasting from 3 to 5 years under the general supervision of a Master Electrician and usually the direct supervision of a Journeyman Electrician.[9] Schooling in electrical theory and electrical building codes is required to complete the apprenticeship program. Many apprenticeship programs provide a salary to the apprentice during training. A Journeyman electrician is a classification of licensing granted to those who have met the experience requirements for on the job training (usually 4080 to 6120 hours) and classroom hours (about 144 hours). Requirements include a two-year relevant degree, completion of two to six years of apprenticeship training, and passing a licensing exam.[10][citation needed]}.

An electrician's license is valid for work in the state where the license was issued. In addition, many states recognize licenses from other states, sometimes called interstate reciprocity participation, although there can be conditions imposed. For example, California reciprocates with Arizona, Nevada, and Utah on the condition that licenses are in good standing and have been held at the other state for five years.[11] Nevada reciprocates with Arizona, California, and Utah.[12] Maine reciprocates with New Hampshire and Vermont at the master level, and the state reciprocates with New Hampshire, North Dakota, Idaho, Oregon, Vermont, and Wyoming at the journeyman level.[13]

Electricians use a range of hand and power tools and instruments.

Some of the more common tools are:

In addition to the workplace hazards generally faced by industrial workers, electricians are also particularly exposed to injury by electricity. An electrician may experience electric shock due to direct contact with energized circuit conductors or due to stray voltage caused by faults in a system. An electric arc exposes eyes and skin to hazardous amounts of heat and light. Faulty switchgear may cause an arc flash incident with a resultant blast. Electricians are trained to work safely and take many measures to minimize the danger of injury. Lockout and tagout procedures are used to make sure that circuits are proven to be de-energized before work is done. Limits of approach to energized equipment protect against arc flash exposure; specially designed flash-resistant clothing provides additional protection; grounding (earthing) clamps and chains are used on line conductors to provide a visible assurance that a conductor is de-energized. Personal protective equipment provides electrical insulation as well as protection from mechanical impact; gloves have insulating rubber liners, and work boots and hard hats are specially rated to provide protection from shock. If a system cannot be de-energized, insulated tools are used; even high-voltage transmission lines can be repaired while energized, when necessary.[14]

Electrical workers, which includes electricians, accounted for 34% of total electrocutions of construction trades workers in the United States between 19922003.[15]

Working conditions for electricians vary by specialization. Generally an electrician's work is physically demanding such as climbing ladders and lifting tools and supplies. Occasionally an electrician must work in a cramped space or on scaffolding, and may frequently be bending, squatting or kneeling, to make connections in awkward locations. Construction electricians may spend much of their days in outdoor or semi-outdoor loud and dirty work sites. Industrial electricians may be exposed to the heat, dust, and noise of an industrial plant. Power systems electricians may be called to work in all kinds of adverse weather to make emergency repairs.

Some electricians are union members and work under their union's policies.

Electrical Contractors can be represented by Master Electricians New Zealand.

Electricians can choose to be represented by the Electrical Trade Union (ETU). Electrical Contractors can be represented by the National Electrical & Communications Association or Master Electricians Australia.

Some electricians are union members. Some examples of electricians' unions include the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers, Canadian Union of Public Employees, and the International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers. The International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers provides its own apprenticeships through its National Joint Apprenticeship and Training Committee and the National Electrical Contractors Association. Many merit shop training and apprenticeship programs also exist, including those offered by such as trade associations as Associated Builders and Contractors and Independent Electrical Contractors. These organizations provide comprehensive training, in accordance with U.S. Department of Labor regulations.

In England, electricians are represented by several unions including Unite the Union

In the Republic of Ireland there are two self-regulation/self certification bodies RECI Register of Electrical Contractors of Ireland and ECSSA.

An auto electrician is a tradesman specializing in electrical wiring of motor vehicles. Auto electricians may be employed in the installation of new electrical components or the maintenance and repair of existing electrical components. Auto electricians specialize in cars and commercial vehicles.

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Electrician - Wikipedia