Home Builder Developer - Interior Renovation and Design

Auto glass damage is not limited to your windshield. A broken car window puts you at the mercy of the weather and exposes your car to theft. Your valuables and car interior are not protected when using a temporary fix or patch on your broken window. If your car window is broken from road debris or smashed in an accident, calling SafeliteAutoGlass to repair or replace your window is the most efficient way to get your car or truck window fixed and back on the road quicker.

When you schedule auto glass service with Safelite, we can make the repair to your car or truck window wherever is convenient to you! We are local in all 50 states, with over 720 service locations ready to get you back on the road.

Can't make it into our auto glass shops? Our mobile auto glass technicians can come to you at the location of your choosing in our MobileGlassShops and fix your broken window on site.

When you come to us for an auto window replacement, our technicians will:

The process is easy and stress-free we promise. Schedule service online today.

All of our technicians are fully certified to replace or repair your car window in-shop or on the road, completing extensive classroom and hands-training in our SafeTech certification program.

Need us to travel to you? We offer the options of mobile or in-shop side window replacement. Whatever works best for you. We can travel to your home, work, or location of your choosing.

The entire replacement can take as little as one hour and our auto window experts clean up after the replacement so you can get back on to the road as soon as possible.

See the article here:
Car Window Replacement | Safelite AutoGlass

Overview

In the words of office design consultant and author Francis Duffy, "The office building is one of the great icons of the twentieth century. Office towers dominate the skylines of cities in every continent [As] the most visible index of economic activity, of social, technological, and financial progress, they have come to symbolize much of what this century has been about."

This is true because the office building is the most tangible reflection of a profound change in employment patterns that has occurred over the last one hundred years. In present-day America, northern Europe, and Japan, at least 50 percent of the working population is employed in office settings as compared to 5 percent of the population at the beginning of the 20th century.

Federal Building-Oakland, CA (Courtesy of Kaplan McLaughlin Diaz )

Interestingly, the life-cycle cost distribution for a typical service organization is about 3 to 4 percent for the facility, 4 percent for operations, 1 percent for furniture, and 90 to 91 percent for salaries. As such, if the office structure can leverage the 3 to 4 percent expenditure on facilities to improve the productivity of the workplace, it can have a very dramatic effect on personnel contributions representing the 90 to 91 percent of the service organization's costs.

To accomplish this impact, the buildings must benefit from an integrated design approach that focuses on meeting a list of objectives. Through integrated design, a new generation of high-performance office buildings is beginning to emerge that offers owners and users increased worker satisfaction and productivity, improved health, greater flexibility, and enhanced energy and environmental performance. Typically, these projects apply life-cycle analysis to optimize initial investments in architectural design, systems selection, and building construction.

An office building must have flexible and technologically-advanced working environments that are safe, healthy, comfortable, durable, aesthetically-pleasing, and accessible. It must be able to accommodate the specific space and equipment needs of the tenant. Special attention should be made to the selection of interior finishes and art installations, particularly in entry spaces, conference rooms and other areas with public access.

An office building incorporates a number of space types to meet the needs of staff and visitors. These may include:

Typical features of Office Buildings include the list of applicable design objectives elements as outlined below. For a complete list and definitions of the design objectives within the context of whole building design, click on the titles below.

The high-performance office should be evaluated using life-cycle economic and material evaluation models. In some cases, owners need to appreciate that optimizing building performance will require a willingness to invest more initially to save on long-term operations and maintenance.

To achieve the optimum performance for the investment in the facility, value engineering provides a means for assessing the performance versus cost of each design element and building component. In the design phase building development, properly applied value engineering considers alternative design solutions to optimize the expected cost/worth ratio of projects at completion. Value engineering elicits ideas on ways of maintaining or enhancing results while reducing life cycle costs. In the construction phase, contractors are encouraged through shared savings to draw on their special 'know-how' to propose changes that cut costs while maintaining or enhancing quality, value, and functional performance. For more information on value-engineering, see WBDG Cost-Effective-Utilize Cost Management Throughout the Planning, Design, and Development Process.

Tenant Requirements-The building design must consider the integrated requirements of the intended tenants. This includes their desired image, degree of public access, operating hours, growth demands, security issues and vulnerability assessment results, organization and group sizes, growth potential, long-term consistency of need, group assembly requirements, electronic equipment and technology requirements, acoustical requirements, special floor loading and filing/storage requirements, special utility services, any material handling or operational process flows, special health hazards, use of vehicles and types of vehicles used, and economic objectives.

The high-performance office must easily and economically accommodate frequent renovation and alteration, sometimes referred to as "churn." These modifications may be due to management reorganization, personnel shifts, changes in business models, or the advent of technological innovation, but the office infrastructure, interior systems, and furnishings must be up to the challenge.

occupant comfort.

The concentration of a large number of workers within one building can have a significant impact on neighborhoods. Office structures can vitalize neighborhoods with the retail, food service, and interrelated business links the office brings to the neighborhood. Consideration of transportation issues must also be given when developing office structures. Office buildings are often impacted by urban planning and municipal zoning, which attempt to promote compatible land use and vibrant neighborhoods.

Worker Satisfaction, Health, and Comfort-In office environments, by far the single greatest cost to employers is the salaries of the employees occupying the space. It generally exceeds the lease and energy costs of a facility by a factor of ten on a square foot basis. For this reason, the health, safety, and comfort of employees in a high-performance office are of paramount concern.

Technology has become an indispensable tool for business, industry, and education. Given that technology is driving a variety of changes in the organizational and architectural forms of office buildings, consider the following issues when incorporating it, particularly information technology (IT), into an office:

See WBDG Productive-Design for the Changing Workplace and Productive-Integrate Technological Tools for more information about incorporating IT into facility design.

Terrorist attacks of the last decade have focused design on protection of occupants and assets against violent attack. Through comprehensive threat assessment, vulnerability assessment, and risk analysis, security requirements for individual buildings are identified, and appropriate reasonable design responses are identified for integration into the office buildings design.

Energy Efficiency-Depending on the office's size, local climate, use profile, and utility rates, strategies for minimizing energy consumption involve: 1) reducing the load (by integrating the building with the site, optimizing the building envelope [decreasing infiltration, increasing insulation], etc.); 2) correctly sizing the heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning systems; and 3) installing high-efficiency equipment, lighting, and appliances.

Consideration should be given to the application of renewable energy systems such as building-integrated photovoltaic systems that generate building electricity, solar thermal systems that produce hot water for domestic hot water (DHW) or space conditioning, or geothermal heat pump systems that draw on the thermal capacitance of the earth to improve HVAC system performance.

Additional consideration should be given to the applications of other distributed energy sources, including microturbines, fuel cells, etc., that provide reliability (emergency and mission critical power) and grid-independence, and reduce reliance on fossil fuel grid power.

For GSA, the unit costs for this building type are based on the construction quality and design features in the following table 876 KB, 36 pgs). This information is based on GSA's benchmark interpretation and could be different for other owners.

Federal Office Building, San Francisco, California

The extensive inventory of facilities that are over 25 years of age present a significant recapitalization challenge. For GSA, its first impressions program addresses the quality of the entrance and lobby areas of its older facility portfolio. Key areas of concern for modernization include upgrading the exterior envelope, mechanical systems, telecommunications infrastructure, security, and interior finishes. Improving the workplace quality, energy performance, security, flexibility to accommodate tenant churn, maintenance overhead and life-cycle expectancy are important objectives for modernizing these facilities, Appropriate preservation for buildings on or eligible to be on the historic registry is part of the modernization effort.

With the advent of improved building technologies and controls it is crucial that high-performance buildings of all kinds be properly commissioned as part of a comprehensive quality assurance plan. In many instances, a process of ongoing commissioning has shown to be effective.

Some federal agencies and private institutions are moving aggressively in the direction of mandating commissioning for all high-performance structures in their portfolios.

There is an enormous range of criteria, codes, and standards that cover federal and private sector office building design. General criteria and guidance for office building design for federal facilities can be found in:

Federal Courthouse, Libraries, Research Facilities, Parking Facilities, Auditorium, Automated Data Processing: Mainframe, Automated Data Processing: PC System, Child Care, Clinic / Health Unit, Conference / Classroom, Food Service, General Storage, Joint Use Retail, Library (Space Type), Office (Space Type), Parking: Basement, Parking: Outside / Structured, Parking: Surface, Physical Fitness (Exercise Room), Private Toilet

Accessible-Beyond Accessibility to Universal Design, Productive, Productive-Integrate Technological Tools, Productive-Design for the Changing Workplace, Productive-Provide Comfortable Environments, Secure / Safe- Fire Protection, Secure / Safe-Ensure Occupant Safety and Health, Secure / Safe-Security for Building Occupants and Assets, Sustainable, Sustainable-Enhance Indoor Environmental Quality

Building Commissioning

Read the original post:
Office Building | WBDG Whole Building Design Guide

Welcome to LoopNet.com! LoopNet is the leading commercial real estate listing service with over 6.3 billion sq ft of space for lease.

View the following Los Angeles Retail listings available for lease or rent. Other Los Angeles, CA properties available for lease can be found by selecting a property type on the right.

Status: No. Spaces: Rental Rate: Space Available: Bldg. Size: Primary Type: Sub-Type:

Active 1 $54.00 931 SF 25,000 SF Retail Neighborhood Center

Status: No. Spaces: Rental Rate: Space Available: Bldg. Size: Primary Type: Sub-Type:

Active 8 $35.88 - $41.88 200 - 7,500 SF 150,000 SF Office Office Building

Status: No. Spaces: Rental Rate: Space Available: Bldg. Size: Primary Type: Sub-Type:

Active 1 N/A 4,040 SF 543,000 SF Retail Street Retail

Status: No. Spaces: Rental Rate: Space Available: Bldg. Size: Primary Type: Sub-Type:

Active 1 $83.40 686 SF 25,000 SF Retail Neighborhood Center

Status: No. Spaces: Rental Rate: Space Available: Bldg. Size: Primary Type: Sub-Type:

Active 9 $46.20 - $54.00 2,000 - 81,577 SF 250,000 SF Office Office Building

Status: No. Spaces: Rental Rate: Space Available: Bldg. Size: Primary Type: Sub-Type:

Active 1 $45.00 920 SF 8,543 SF Retail Neighborhood Center

Status: No. Spaces: Rental Rate: Space Available: Bldg. Size: Primary Type: Sub-Type:

Active 2 $24.00 643 - 1,187 SF 154,326 SF Retail Retail (Other)

Status: No. Spaces: Rental Rate: Space Available: Bldg. Size: Primary Type: Sub-Type:

Active 1 $1.95 2,000 SF 2,000 SF Retail Street Retail

Status: No. Spaces: Rental Rate: Space Available: Bldg. Size: Primary Type: Sub-Type:

Active 3 $15.00 - $16.80 3,875 - 8,320 SF 8,320 SF Retail Street Retail

Status: No. Spaces: Rental Rate: Space Available: Bldg. Size: Primary Type: Sub-Type:

Active 3 N/A 1,500 - 4,460 SF 4,460 SF Industrial Flex Space

Status: No. Spaces: Rental Rate: Space Available: Bldg. Size: Primary Type: Sub-Type:

Active 3 $33.00 700 - 3,000 SF 1,500 SF Retail Neighborhood Center

Status: No. Spaces: Rental Rate: Space Available: Bldg. Size: Primary Type: Sub-Type:

Active 1 $55.50 1,600 SF 16,000 SF Retail Street Retail

Status: No. Spaces: Rental Rate: Space Available: Bldg. Size: Primary Type: Sub-Type:

Active 1 $216.00 3,000 SF 8,000 SF Retail Street Retail

Status: No. Spaces: Rental Rate: Space Available: Bldg. Size: Primary Type: Sub-Type:

Active 1 $31.20 1,600 SF 3,200 SF Retail Street Retail

Status: No. Spaces: Rental Rate: Space Available: Bldg. Size: Primary Type: Sub-Type:

Active 1 $44.73 550 SF 6,370 SF Retail Street Retail

Status: No. Spaces: Rental Rate: Space Available: Bldg. Size: Primary Type: Sub-Type:

Active 1 N/A 2,500 SF 10,000 SF Retail Street Retail

Status: No. Spaces: Rental Rate: Space Available: Bldg. Size: Primary Type: Sub-Type:

Active 1 N/A 1,000 - 13,500 SF 1,741 SF Retail Free Standing Bldg

Status: No. Spaces: Rental Rate: Space Available: Bldg. Size: Primary Type: Sub-Type:

Active 1 N/A 6,000 SF 6,000 SF Retail Restaurant

Status: No. Spaces: Rental Rate: Space Available: Bldg. Size: Primary Type: Sub-Type:

Active 1 $27.00 730 SF 9,973 SF Retail Street Retail

Status: No. Spaces: Rental Rate: Space Available: Bldg. Size: Primary Type: Sub-Type:

Active 1 $64.15 2,023 SF 4,022 SF Office Creative/Loft

Status: No. Spaces: Rental Rate: Space Available: Bldg. Size: Primary Type: Sub-Type:

Active 1 $75.00 5,500 SF 5,500 SF Retail Restaurant

Status: No. Spaces: Rental Rate: Space Available: Bldg. Size: Primary Type: Sub-Type:

Active 1 N/A 20,000 - 91,153 SF 91,153 SF Office Creative/Loft

Status: No. Spaces: Rental Rate: Space Available: Bldg. Size: Primary Type: Sub-Type:

Active 1 $20.00 1,500 SF 3,016 SF Retail Street Retail

Status: No. Spaces: Rental Rate: Space Available: Bldg. Size: Primary Type: Sub-Type:

Active 6 N/A 6,250 - 12,500 SF 56,250 SF Office Creative/Loft

Status: No. Spaces: Rental Rate: Space Available: Bldg. Size: Primary Type: Sub-Type:

Active 1 N/A 1,200 SF 4,000 SF Retail Street Retail

Share this page on social networks:

Start a new search to find additional Los Angeles Retail Space available for lease or rent:

Do you have commercial retail space available for lease? You can list it for FREE: Click to add your property to LoopNet.com.

LoopNet.com operates the most heavily trafficed online listing service for buying and selling Los Angeles Retail Space and other listings across the U.S. and Canada. In total, LoopNet has over 220,000 spaces available for lease, equalling over 6.3 billion sq. ft. of commercial real estate space for lease.

As the leading marketplace for online commercial real estate marketing, LoopNet attracts the largest community of Los Angeles commercial real estate professionals with total LoopNet membership exeeding 7 million members. The LoopNet user base is comprised of commercial real estate brokers, corporate executives, mortgage brokers, and over 3 million buyers, tenants and other principals from Los Angeles, CA and other national and international markets, many of whom specialize in Los Angeles Retail Space.

Besides Los Angeles Retail Property listings for lease, LoopNet's inventory of commercial real estate includes multifamily apartment buildings, office buildings, retail space, hotels and motels, gas stations, churches, shopping centers, warehouses, restaurants, land for sale, Los Angeles foreclosures, REO properties, bank owned properties and much more.

Register for FREE and get Access to the More LoopNet Features.

Read the original:
Los Angeles Retail Space For Lease - LoopNet

Richmond December 12, 2016

Governor McAuliffe Signs Executive Directive Creating Opioid Executive Leadership Team

Governor Terry McAuliffe today signed Executive Directive 9, which creates an Executive Leadership Team to oversee Virginias continuing work to combat the opioid epidemic.

Full article

Richmond December 12, 2016

Governor McAuliffe Announces Award of Funding for Pilot Projects Supporting Mental Health Services in Jails

Governor Terry McAuliffe announced the award of grants that will six fund pilot projects to provide services to inmates with mental illness in local or regional jails. The grants were approved by the Criminal Justice Services Board at its meeting on

Full article

Richmond December 12, 2016

Governor McAuliffe Announces Legislation to Strengthen Virginias Economic Development Partnership

Governor Terry McAuliffe today announced that he will introduce legislation in the upcoming 2017 General Assembly session to strengthen oversight, accountability and management at the Virginia Economic Development Partnership (VEDP).

Full article

December 09, 2016

Governor McAuliffe Announces Administration Appointments

Governor Terry McAuliffe announced additional appointments to his Administration today. The appointees will join McAuliffes Administration focused on finding common ground with members of both parties on issues that will build a new Virginia

Full article

Link:
Governor Terry McAuliffe - Official Site

War never pays its dividends in cash on the money it costs.

Language is a great bridge.

The First Sea Lord moves the fleet. No one else moves it.

There is no finer investment for any community than putting milk into babies.

The nose of the bulldog has been slanted backwards so that he can breathe without letting go.

You must look at facts, because they look at you.

It is a good thing for an uneducated man to read books of quotations.

No technical knowledge can outweigh knowledge of the humanities.

The British people have taken for themselves this motto: 'Business carried on as usual during alterations on the map of Europe.'

Life, which is so complicated and difficult in great matters, nearly always presents itself in simple terms.

Honours should go where death and danger go.

Never in the field of human conflict was so much owed by so many to so few.

The recognition of their language is precious to a small people.

I never take pleasure in human woe.

History with its flickering lamp stumbles along the trail of the past...

We must always be ready to make sacrifices for the great causes; only in that way shall we live to keep our souls alive.

Frightfulness is not a remedy known to the British pharmacopoeia.

It is no part of my case that I am always right.

Go out into the sunlight and be happy with what you see.

There is always much to be said for not attempting more than you can do But this principle has its exceptions.

You cannot cure cancer by a majority. What is needed is a remedy.

I am certainly not one of those who need to be prodded. In fact, if anything, I am a prod.

Above all, my dear friend, do not be vexed or discouraged. We are on the stage of history.

Is [this coalition] to be above party Government or below party Government?

I have nothing to offer but blood, toil, tears, and sweat.

Patience and good temper accomplish much.

Tidiness is a virtue, symmetry is often a constituent of beauty.

Craft is common both to skill and deceit.

I can well understand the Hon. Member speaking for practice,which he badly needs.

All wisdom is not new wisdom.

I do not resent criticism, even when, for the sake of emphasis, it for a time parts company with reality.

The usefulness of a naval invention ceases when it is enjoyed by everyone else.

God for a month of power & a good shorthand writer.

Great and impressive are the effects of contrast.

Socialism is the philosophy of failure, the creed of ignorance, and the gospel of envy.

The Hon. Member is never lucky in the coincidence of his facts with the truth.

The object of Parliament is to substitute arguments for fisticuffs.

Nationalization of industry is the doom of trade unionism.

[I object] on principle to doing by legislation what properly belongs to charity.

In war, resolution; in defeat, defiance; in victory, magnanimity; in peace, goodwill.

Mr. Speaker, let us envisagean unpleasant and overworked word.

If you destroy a free market you create a black market.

The only guide to a man is his conscience; the only shield to his memory is the rectitude and sincerity of his actions.

Let us learn our lessons.

--The British people have always been superior to the British climate.

Evils can be created much quicker than they can be cured.

The British Constitution is mainly British common sense.

One ought to be just before one is generous.

A fanatic is someone whowont change his mind, and wont change the subject

I can well understand the Hon. Member speaking for practice, which he badly needs.

My Rt. Hon. Friend [Air Minister Sir Kingsley Wood] has not been long enough in office to grow a guilty conscience.

The maxim of the British people is 'Business as usual.'

Short words are best and the old words when short are best of all.

This is no time for ease and comfort. It is the time to dare and endure.

In wartime, Truth is so precious that she should always be surrounded by a bodyguard of lies.

Nothing is more costly, nothing is more sterile, than vengeance.

It's a long way to Tipperary, but a visit there is sometimes irresistible.

War is very cruel. It goes on for so long.

Chivalrous gallantry is not among the peculiar characteristics of excited democracy.

The English never draw a line without blurring it.

Nothing makes a man more reverent than a library.

There is only one thing worse than fighting with allies, and that is fighting without them.

Vengeance is the most costly and dissipating of luxuries.

One can usually put one's thoughts better in ones own words.

Bolshevism is a great evil, but it has arisen out of great social evils.

Time and money are largely interchangeable terms.

We must beware of needless innovation, especially when guided by logic.

Give us the tools, and we will finish the job.

At the beginning of this War megalomania was the only form of sanity.

History with its flickering lamp stumbles along the trail of the past...

I am always ready to learn, although I do not always like being taught.

Each one [of the neutral nations] hopes that if he feeds the crocodile enough, the crocodile will eat him last.

When you get to the end of your luck, there is a comfortable feeling you have got to the bottom.

An announcement of a prospective surplus is always a milestone in a budget.

If we win, nobody will care. If we lose, there will be nobody to care.

I could not live without Champagne. In victory I deserve it. In defeat I need it.

Well it may be said, well it was said, that the prerogatives of the Crown have become privileges of the people.

The furtherbackward you look, the further forward you can see.

Sometimes when fortune scowls most spitefully, she is preparing her most dazzling gifts.

soldiers must die, but by their death they nourish the nation which gave them birth.

Our task is not only to win the battlebut to win the war.

He has all of the virtues I dislike and none ofthe vices I admire.

I think of France, anxious, peace-loving, pacifist to the core, but armed to the teeth

Kites rise highest against the wind notwith it.

We have a lot of anxieties, and one cancels out another very often.

Nothing in life is so exhilarating as to be shot at without result.

It is not in our power to anticipate our destiny.

Politics is not a game. It is an earnest business.

How few men are strong enough to stand against the prevailing currents of opinion!

A hopeful disposition is not the sole qualification to be a prophet.

Go here to read the rest:
Welcome to WinstonChurchill.org

Breathtaking

The snowy mountains of Cairngorms

Creag Bheag near Kingussie

Enjoy a gentle ramble or a challenging walk, both with the most rewarding of views

Glenlivet bike trails

Weave your way through the Caledonian Pine Forest on some of the best cycling trails in Britain

9th December, 2016

8th December, 2016

Golden Eagle catching its prey

The habitat of the majestic Golden Eagle

Red Squirrel

See one of Britain's rarest mammals, the Red Squirrel

Scottish Wildcat

See the rare Scottish Wildcat in its natural environment

Twinflower

Learn about the Park's rarest plants

The iconic osprey

Find out how we monitor the three key species of Raptor

We are now looking for sites that can be considered for allocation within the new Local Development Plan

Junior Rangers Outdoor courses for 11-18 year olds

Walker

For the 'right to roam' you have to show care, respect and responsibility

Original post:
Cairngorms National Park Authority

Welcome to LoopNet.com! LoopNet is the leading commercial real estate listing service with over 6.3 billion sq ft of space for lease.

View the following Clearwater Retail listings available for lease or rent. Other Clearwater, FL properties available for lease can be found by selecting a property type on the right.

Status: No. Spaces: Rental Rate: Space Available: Bldg. Size: Primary Type: Sub-Type:

Active 1 $15.00 - $19.00 10,000 SF 10,000 SF Retail Free Standing Bldg

Status: No. Spaces: Rental Rate: Space Available: Bldg. Size: Primary Type: Sub-Type:

Active 1 $13.00 - $15.00 2,378 SF 105,000 SF Retail Restaurant

Status: No. Spaces: Rental Rate: Space Available: Bldg. Size: Primary Type: Sub-Type:

Active 10 $15.00 - $18.50 648 - 7,334 SF 32,405 SF Office Office Building

Status: No. Spaces: Rental Rate: Space Available: Bldg. Size: Primary Type: Sub-Type:

Active 2 $21.33 - $23.53 255 - 450 SF 1,650 SF Office Creative/Loft

Status: No. Spaces: Rental Rate: Space Available: Bldg. Size: Primary Type: Sub-Type:

Active 11 $10.00 600 - 30,474 SF 82,400 SF Retail Neighborhood Center

Status: No. Spaces: Rental Rate: Space Available: Bldg. Size: Primary Type: Sub-Type:

Active 2 N/A 450 - 2,079 SF 22,500 SF Office Office Building

Status: No. Spaces: Rental Rate: Space Available: Bldg. Size: Primary Type: Sub-Type:

Active 1 $7.95 9,800 SF 9,800 SF Retail Free Standing Bldg

Status: No. Spaces: Rental Rate: Space Available: Bldg. Size: Primary Type: Sub-Type:

Active 3 N/A 4,450 - 40,000 SF 275,407 SF Retail Retail (Other)

Status: No. Spaces: Rental Rate: Space Available: Bldg. Size: Primary Type: Sub-Type:

Active 1 $12.00 1,000 - 3,900 SF 4,000 SF Retail Free Standing Bldg

Status: No. Spaces: Rental Rate: Space Available: Bldg. Size: Primary Type: Sub-Type:

Active 1 $22.00 5,500 SF 11,956 SF Retail Free Standing Bldg

Status: No. Spaces: Rental Rate: Space Available: Bldg. Size: Primary Type: Sub-Type:

Active 4 N/A 1,600 - 10,000 SF 122,812 SF Retail Retail (Other)

Status: No. Spaces: Rental Rate: Space Available: Bldg. Size: Primary Type: Sub-Type:

Active 1 N/A 6,676 SF 6,676 SF Retail Restaurant

Status: No. Spaces: Rental Rate: Space Available: Bldg. Size: Primary Type: Sub-Type:

Active 1 $20.00 3,700 SF 3,700 SF Retail Street Retail

Status: No. Spaces: Rental Rate: Space Available: Bldg. Size: Primary Type: Sub-Type:

Active Fully Leased N/A Fully Leased 4,884 SF Retail Retail (Other)

Status: No. Spaces: Rental Rate: Space Available: Bldg. Size: Primary Type: Sub-Type:

Active 1 $18.00 2,000 - 3,500 SF 3,500 SF Retail Restaurant

Status: No. Spaces: Rental Rate: Space Available: Bldg. Size: Primary Type: Sub-Type:

Active 11 N/A 1,289 - 29,032 SF 29,032 SF Retail Neighborhood Center

Status: No. Spaces: Rental Rate: Space Available: Bldg. Size: Primary Type: Sub-Type:

Active 1 N/A 30,335 SF 68,865 SF Retail Retail (Other)

Status: No. Spaces: Rental Rate: Space Available: Bldg. Size: Primary Type: Sub-Type:

Active 1 N/A 5,500 SF 5,550 SF Retail Free Standing Bldg

Status: No. Spaces: Rental Rate: Space Available: Bldg. Size: Primary Type: Sub-Type:

Active 1 N/A 2,104 SF 82,196 SF Retail Retail (Other)

Status: No. Spaces: Rental Rate: Space Available: Bldg. Size: Primary Type: Sub-Type:

Active 6 $15.00 - $17.00 960 - 5,000 SF 35,000 SF Retail Strip Center

Status: No. Spaces: Rental Rate: Space Available: Bldg. Size: Primary Type: Sub-Type:

Active 2 $24.00 - $29.00 2,260 - 4,520 SF 6,844 SF Retail Strip Center

Status: No. Spaces: Rental Rate: Space Available: Bldg. Size: Primary Type: Sub-Type:

Active 1 $19.10 10,000 - 14,928 SF 15,150 SF Retail Retail Pad

Status: No. Spaces: Rental Rate: Space Available: Bldg. Size: Primary Type: Sub-Type:

Active 1 $45.00 2,005 - 5,168 SF 5,168 SF Retail Retail (Other)

Status: No. Spaces: Rental Rate: Space Available: Bldg. Size: Primary Type: Sub-Type:

Active 3 $11.79 - $16.29 700 - 1,934 SF 2,634 SF Retail Strip Center

Status: No. Spaces: Rental Rate: Space Available: Bldg. Size: Primary Type: Sub-Type:

Active 1 N/A 1,200 - 9,600 SF 9,600 SF Retail Free Standing Bldg

Share this page on social networks:

Start a new search to find additional Clearwater Retail Space available for lease or rent:

Do you have commercial retail space available for lease? You can list it for FREE: Click to add your property to LoopNet.com.

LoopNet.com operates the most heavily trafficed online listing service for buying and selling Clearwater Retail Space and other listings across the U.S. and Canada. In total, LoopNet has over 220,000 spaces available for lease, equalling over 6.3 billion sq. ft. of commercial real estate space for lease.

As the leading marketplace for online commercial real estate marketing, LoopNet attracts the largest community of Clearwater commercial real estate professionals with total LoopNet membership exeeding 7 million members. The LoopNet user base is comprised of commercial real estate brokers, corporate executives, mortgage brokers, and over 3 million buyers, tenants and other principals from Clearwater, FL and other national and international markets, many of whom specialize in Clearwater Retail Space.

Besides Clearwater Retail Property listings for lease, LoopNet's inventory of commercial real estate includes multifamily apartment buildings, office buildings, retail space, hotels and motels, gas stations, churches, shopping centers, warehouses, restaurants, land for sale, Clearwater foreclosures, REO properties, bank owned properties and much more.

Register for FREE and get Access to the More LoopNet Features.

See the original post:
Clearwater Retail Space For Lease - LoopNet

Glass is a non-crystalline amorphous solid that is often transparent and has widespread practical, technological, and decorative usage in, for example, window panes, tableware, and optoelectronics. Scientifically, the term "glass" is often defined in a broader sense, encompassing every solid that possesses a non-crystalline (that is, amorphous) structure at the atomic scale and that exhibits a glass transition when heated towards the liquid state.

The most familiar, and historically the oldest, types of glass are "silicate glasses" based on the chemical compound silica (silicon dioxide, or quartz), the primary constituent of sand. The term glass, in popular usage, is often used to refer only to this type of material, which is familiar from use as window glass and in glass bottles. Of the many silica-based glasses that exist, ordinary glazing and container glass is formed from a specific type called soda-lime glass, composed of approximately 75% silicon dioxide (SiO2), sodium oxide (Na2O) from sodium carbonate (Na2CO3), calcium oxide, also called lime (CaO), and several minor additives. A very clear and durable quartz glass can be made from pure silica, but the high melting point and very narrow glass transition of quartz make glassblowing and hot working difficult. In glasses like soda lime, the compounds added to quartz are used to lower the melting temperature and improve workability, at a cost in the toughness, thermal stability, and optical transmittance.

Many applications of silicate glasses derive from their optical transparency, which gives rise to one of silicate glasses' primary uses as window panes. Glass will transmit, reflect and refract light; these qualities can be enhanced by cutting and polishing to make optical lenses, prisms, fine glassware, and optical fibers for high speed data transmission by light. Glass can be colored by adding metallic salts, and can also be painted and printed with vitreous enamels. These qualities have led to the extensive use of glass in the manufacture of art objects and in particular, stained glass windows. Although brittle, silicate glass is extremely durable, and many examples of glass fragments exist from early glass-making cultures. Because glass can be formed or molded into any shape, and also because it is a sterile product, it has been traditionally used for vessels: bowls, vases, bottles, jars and drinking glasses. In its most solid forms it has also been used for paperweights, marbles, and beads. When extruded as glass fiber and matted as glass wool in a way to trap air, it becomes a thermal insulating material, and when these glass fibers are embedded into an organic polymer plastic, they are a key structural reinforcement part of the composite material fiberglass. Some objects historically were so commonly made of silicate glass that they are simply called by the name of the material, such as drinking glasses and reading glasses.

In science, porcelains and many polymer thermoplastics familiar from everyday use are glasses too. These sorts of glasses can be made of quite different kinds of materials than silica: metallic alloys, ionic melts, aqueous solutions, molecular liquids, and polymers. For many applications, like glass bottles or eyewear, polymer glasses (acrylic glass, polycarbonate or polyethylene terephthalate) are a lighter alternative than traditional glass.

Silica (the chemical compound SiO2) is a common fundamental constituent of glass. In nature, vitrification of quartz occurs when lightning strikes sand, forming hollow, branching rootlike structures called fulgurite.

Fused quartz is a glass made from chemically-pure SiO2 (silica). It has excellent thermal shock characteristics, being able to survive immersion in water while red hot. However, its high melting-temperature (1723C) and viscosity make it difficult to work with.[1] Normally, other substances are added to simplify processing. One is sodium carbonate (Na2CO3, "soda"), which lowers the glass transition temperature. The soda makes the glass water-soluble, which is usually undesirable, so lime (calcium oxide [CaO], generally obtained from limestone), some magnesium oxide (MgO) and aluminium oxide (Al2O3) are added to provide for a better chemical durability. The resulting glass contains about 70 to 74% silica by weight and is called a soda-lime glass.[2] Soda-lime glasses account for about 90% of manufactured glass.

Most common glass contains other ingredients to change its properties. Lead glass or flint glass is more 'brilliant' because the increased refractive index causes noticeably more specular reflection and increased optical dispersion. Adding barium also increases the refractive index. Thorium oxide gives glass a high refractive index and low dispersion and was formerly used in producing high-quality lenses, but due to its radioactivity has been replaced by lanthanum oxide in modern eyeglasses.[citation needed] Iron can be incorporated into glass to absorb infrared energy, for example in heat absorbing filters for movie projectors, while cerium(IV) oxide can be used for glass that absorbs UV wavelengths.[3]

The following is a list of the more common types of silicate glasses, and their ingredients, properties, and applications:

Another common glass ingredient is crushed alkali glass or "cullet" ready for recycled glass. The recycled glass saves on raw materials and energy. Impurities in the cullet can lead to product and equipment failure. Fining agents such as sodium sulfate, sodium chloride, or antimony oxide may be added to reduce the number of air bubbles in the glass mixture.[2]Glass batch calculation is the method by which the correct raw material mixture is determined to achieve the desired glass composition.

Glass is in widespread use largely due to the production of glass compositions that are transparent to visible light. In contrast, polycrystalline materials do not generally transmit visible light.[7] The individual crystallites may be transparent, but their facets (grain boundaries) reflect or scatter light resulting in diffuse reflection. Glass does not contain the internal subdivisions associated with grain boundaries in polycrystals and hence does not scatter light in the same manner as a polycrystalline material. The surface of a glass is often smooth since during glass formation the molecules of the supercooled liquid are not forced to dispose in rigid crystal geometries and can follow surface tension, which imposes a microscopically smooth surface. These properties, which give glass its clearness, can be retained even if glass is partially light-absorbingi.e., colored.[8]

Glass has the ability to refract, reflect, and transmit light following geometrical optics, without scattering it. It is used in the manufacture of lenses and windows. Common glass has a refraction index around 1.5. This may be modified by adding low-density materials such as boron, which lowers the index of refraction (see crown glass), or increased (to as much as 1.8) with high-density materials such as (classically) lead oxide (see flint glass and lead glass), or in modern uses, less toxic oxides of zirconium, titanium, or barium. These high-index glasses (inaccurately known as "crystal" when used in glass vessels) cause more chromatic dispersion of light, and are prized for their diamond-like optical properties.

According to Fresnel equations, the reflectivity of a sheet of glass is about 4% per surface (at normal incidence in air), and the transmissivity of one element (two surfaces) is about 90%. Glass with high germanium oxide content also finds application in optoelectronicse.g., for light-transmitting optical fibers.

In the process of manufacture, silicate glass can be poured, formed, extruded and molded into forms ranging from flat sheets to highly intricate shapes. The finished product is brittle and will fracture, unless laminated or specially treated, but is extremely durable under most conditions. It erodes very slowly and can withstand the action of water. It is resilient to chemical attack and is an ideal material for the manufacture of containers for foodstuffs and most chemicals.

Following the glass batch preparation and mixing, the raw materials are transported to the furnace. Soda-lime glass for mass production is melted in gas fired units. Smaller scale furnaces for specialty glasses include electric melters, pot furnaces, and day tanks.[2] After melting, homogenization and refining (removal of bubbles), the glass is formed. Flat glass for windows and similar applications is formed by the float glass process, developed between 1953 and 1957 by Sir Alastair Pilkington and Kenneth Bickerstaff of the UK's Pilkington Brothers, who created a continuous ribbon of glass using a molten tin bath on which the molten glass flows unhindered under the influence of gravity. The top surface of the glass is subjected to nitrogen under pressure to obtain a polished finish.[9]Container glass for common bottles and jars is formed by blowing and pressing methods. This glass is often slightly modified chemically (with more alumina and calcium oxide) for greater water resistance. Further glass forming techniques are summarized in the table Glass forming techniques.

Once the desired form is obtained, glass is usually annealed for the removal of stresses. Surface treatments, coatings or lamination may follow to improve the chemical durability (glass container coatings, glass container internal treatment), strength (toughened glass, bulletproof glass, windshields), or optical properties (insulated glazing, anti-reflective coating).

Impurities give the glass its color

Some of the many color possibilities of glass

Transparent and opaque examples

Glass can be blown into an infinite number of shapes

Color in glass may be obtained by addition of electrically charged ions (or color centers) that are homogeneously distributed, and by precipitation of finely dispersed particles (such as in photochromic glasses).[10] Ordinary soda-lime glass appears colorless to the naked eye when it is thin, although iron(II) oxide (FeO) impurities of up to 0.1 wt%[11] produce a green tint, which can be viewed in thick pieces or with the aid of scientific instruments. Further FeO and Cr2O3 additions may be used for the production of green bottles. Sulfur, together with carbon and iron salts, is used to form iron polysulfides and produce amber glass ranging from yellowish to almost black.[12] A glass melt can also acquire an amber color from a reducing combustion atmosphere. Manganese dioxide can be added in small amounts to remove the green tint given by iron(II) oxide. When used in art glass or studio glass is colored using closely guarded recipes that involve specific combinations of metal oxides, melting temperatures and "cook" times. Most colored glass used in the art market is manufactured in volume by vendors who serve this market, although there are some glassmakers with the ability to make their own color from raw materials.

Naturally occurring glass, especially the volcanic glass obsidian, has been used by many Stone Age societies across the globe for the production of sharp cutting tools and, due to its limited source areas, was extensively traded. But in general, archaeological evidence suggests that the first true glass was made in coastal north Syria, Mesopotamia or ancient Egypt.[13] The earliest known glass objects, of the mid third millennium BCE, were beads, perhaps initially created as accidental by-products of metal-working (slags) or during the production of faience, a pre-glass vitreous material made by a process similar to glazing.[14]

Glass remained a luxury material, and the disasters that overtook Late Bronze Age civilizations seem to have brought glass-making to a halt. Indigenous development of glass technology in South Asia may have begun in 1730 BCE.[15] In ancient China, though, glassmaking seems to have a late start, compared to ceramics and metal work. The term glass developed in the late Roman Empire. It was in the Roman glassmaking center at Trier, now in modern Germany, that the late-Latin term glesum originated, probably from a Germanic word for a transparent, lustrous substance.[16] Glass objects have been recovered across the Roman empire in domestic, industrial and funerary contexts.[citation needed]

Glass was used extensively during the Middle Ages. Anglo-Saxon glass has been found across England during archaeological excavations of both settlement and cemetery sites. Glass in the Anglo-Saxon period was used in the manufacture of a range of objects including vessels, beads, windows and was also used in jewelry. From the 10th-century onwards, glass was employed in stained glass windows of churches and cathedrals, with famous examples at Chartres Cathedral and the Basilica of Saint Denis. By the 14th-century, architects were designing buildings with walls of stained glass such as Sainte-Chapelle, Paris, (12031248)[17] and the East end of Gloucester Cathedral.[18] Stained glass had a major revival with Gothic Revival architecture in the 19th-century. With the Renaissance, and a change in architectural style, the use of large stained glass windows became less prevalent. The use of domestic stained glass increased until most substantial houses had glass windows. These were initially small panes leaded together, but with the changes in technology, glass could be manufactured relatively cheaply in increasingly larger sheets. This led to larger window panes, and, in the 20th-century, to much larger windows in ordinary domestic and commercial buildings.

In the 20th century, new types of glass such as laminated glass, reinforced glass and glass bricks have increased the use of glass as a building material and resulted in new applications of glass. Multi-storey buildings are frequently constructed with curtain walls made almost entirely of glass. Similarly, laminated glass has been widely applied to vehicles for windscreens. While glass containers have always been used for storage and are valued for their hygienic properties, glass has been utilized increasingly in industry. Optical glass for spectacles has been used since the late Middle Ages. The production of lenses has become increasingly proficient, aiding astronomers as well as having other application in medicine and science. Glass is also employed as the aperture cover in many solar energy systems.

From the 19th century, there was a revival in many ancient glass-making techniques including cameo glass, achieved for the first time since the Roman Empire and initially mostly used for pieces in a neo-classical style. The Art Nouveau movement made great use of glass, with Ren Lalique, mile Gall, and Daum of Nancy producing colored vases and similar pieces, often in cameo glass, and also using luster techniques. Louis Comfort Tiffany in America specialized in stained glass, both secular and religious, and his famous lamps. The early 20th-century saw the large-scale factory production of glass art by firms such as Waterford and Lalique. From about 1960 onwards there have been an increasing number of small studios hand-producing glass artworks, and glass artists began to class themselves as in effect sculptors working in glass, and their works as part fine arts.

In the 21st century, scientists observing the properties of ancient stained glass windows, in which suspended nanoparticles prevent UV light from causing chemical reactions that change image colors, are developing photographic techniques that use similar stained glass to capture true color images of Mars for the 2019 ESA Mars Rover mission.[19]

A building in Canterbury, England, which displays its long history in different building styles and glazing of every century from the 16th to the 20th included.

Windows in the choir of the Basilica of Saint Denis, one of the earliest uses of extensive areas of glass. (early 13th-century architecture with restored glass of the 19th-century)

Windows at sterreichische Postsparkasse, Vienna, (early 20th-century)

Westin Bonaventure Hotel, USA, show the extensive use of glass as a building material in the 20th-21st centuries

New chemical glass compositions or new treatment techniques can be initially investigated in small-scale laboratory experiments. The raw materials for laboratory-scale glass melts are often different from those used in mass production because the cost factor has a low priority. In the laboratory mostly pure chemicals are used. Care must be taken that the raw materials have not reacted with moisture or other chemicals in the environment (such as alkali or alkaline earth metal oxides and hydroxides, or boron oxide), or that the impurities are quantified (loss on ignition).[21] Evaporation losses during glass melting should be considered during the selection of the raw materials, e.g., sodium selenite may be preferred over easily evaporating SeO2. Also, more readily reacting raw materials may be preferred over relatively inert ones, such as Al(OH)3 over Al2O3. Usually, the melts are carried out in platinum crucibles to reduce contamination from the crucible material. Glass homogeneity is achieved by homogenizing the raw materials mixture (glass batch), by stirring the melt, and by crushing and re-melting the first melt. The obtained glass is usually annealed to prevent breakage during processing.[21][22]

To make glass from materials with poor glass forming tendencies, novel techniques are used to increase cooling rate, or reduce crystal nucleation triggers. Examples of these techniques include aerodynamic levitation (cooling the melt whilst it floats on a gas stream), splat quenching (pressing the melt between two metal anvils) and roller quenching (pouring the melt through rollers).

Some glasses that do not include silica as a major constituent may have physico-chemical properties useful for their application in fiber optics and other specialized technical applications. These include fluoride glasses, aluminosilicates, phosphate glasses, borate glasses, and chalcogenide glasses.

There are three classes of components for oxide glasses: network formers, intermediates, and modifiers. The network formers (silicon, boron, germanium) form a highly cross-linked network of chemical bonds. The intermediates (titanium, aluminium, zirconium, beryllium, magnesium, zinc) can act as both network formers and modifiers, according to the glass composition. The modifiers (calcium, lead, lithium, sodium, potassium) alter the network structure; they are usually present as ions, compensated by nearby non-bridging oxygen atoms, bound by one covalent bond to the glass network and holding one negative charge to compensate for the positive ion nearby. Some elements can play multiple roles; e.g. lead can act both as a network former (Pb4+ replacing Si4+), or as a modifier.

The presence of non-bridging oxygens lowers the relative number of strong bonds in the material and disrupts the network, decreasing the viscosity of the melt and lowering the melting temperature.

The alkali metal ions are small and mobile; their presence in glass allows a degree of electrical conductivity, especially in molten state or at high temperature. Their mobility decreases the chemical resistance of the glass, allowing leaching by water and facilitating corrosion. Alkaline earth ions, with their two positive charges and requirement for two non-bridging oxygen ions to compensate for their charge, are much less mobile themselves and also hinder diffusion of other ions, especially the alkalis. The most common commercial glasses contain both alkali and alkaline earth ions (usually sodium and calcium), for easier processing and satisfying corrosion resistance.[24] Corrosion resistance of glass can be achieved by dealkalization, removal of the alkali ions from the glass surface by reaction with e.g. sulfur or fluorine compounds. Presence of alkaline metal ions has also detrimental effect to the loss tangent of the glass, and to its electrical resistance; glasses for electronics (sealing, vacuum tubes, lamps...) have to take this in account.

Addition of lead(II) oxide lowers melting point, lowers viscosity of the melt, and increases refractive index. Lead oxide also facilitates solubility of other metal oxides and is used in colored glasses. The viscosity decrease of lead glass melt is very significant (roughly 100 times in comparison with soda glasses); this allows easier removal of bubbles and working at lower temperatures, hence its frequent use as an additive in vitreous enamels and glass solders. The high ionic radius of the Pb2+ ion renders it highly immobile in the matrix and hinders the movement of other ions; lead glasses therefore have high electrical resistance, about two orders of magnitude higher than soda-lime glass (108.5 vs 106.5 Ohmcm, DC at 250C). For more details, see lead glass.[25]

Addition of fluorine lowers the dielectric constant of glass. Fluorine is highly electronegative and attracts the electrons in the lattice, lowering the polarizability of the material. Such silicon dioxide-fluoride is used in manufacture of integrated circuits as an insulator. High levels of fluorine doping lead to formation of volatile SiF2O and such glass is then thermally unstable. Stable layers were achieved with dielectric constant down to about 3.53.7.[26]

In the past, small batches of amorphous metals with high surface area configurations (ribbons, wires, films, etc.) have been produced through the implementation of extremely rapid rates of cooling. This was initially termed "splat cooling" by doctoral student W. Klement at Caltech, who showed that cooling rates on the order of millions of degrees per second is sufficient to impede the formation of crystals, and the metallic atoms become "locked into" a glassy state. Amorphous metal wires have been produced by sputtering molten metal onto a spinning metal disk. More recently a number of alloys have been produced in layers with thickness exceeding 1 millimeter. These are known as bulk metallic glasses (BMG). Liquidmetal Technologies sell a number of zirconium-based BMGs. Batches of amorphous steel have also been produced that demonstrate mechanical properties far exceeding those found in conventional steel alloys.[27][28][29]

In 2004, NIST researchers presented evidence that an isotropic non-crystalline metallic phase (dubbed "q-glass") could be grown from the melt. This phase is the first phase, or "primary phase", to form in the Al-Fe-Si system during rapid cooling. Interestingly, experimental evidence indicates that this phase forms by a first-order transition. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) images show that the q-glass nucleates from the melt as discrete particles, which grow spherically with a uniform growth rate in all directions. The diffraction pattern shows it to be an isotropic glassy phase. Yet there is a nucleation barrier, which implies an interfacial discontinuity (or internal surface) between the glass and the melt.[30][31]

Electrolytes or molten salts are mixtures of different ions. In a mixture of three or more ionic species of dissimilar size and shape, crystallization can be so difficult that the liquid can easily be supercooled into a glass. The best-studied example is Ca0.4K0.6(NO3)1.4.

Some aqueous solutions can be supercooled into a glassy state, for instance LiCl:RH2O in the composition range 4

A molecular liquid is composed of molecules that do not form a covalent network but interact only through weak van der Waals forces or through transient hydrogen bonds. Many molecular liquids can be supercooled into a glass; some are excellent glass formers that normally do not crystallize.

A widely known example is sugar glass.

Under extremes of pressure and temperature solids may exhibit large structural and physical changes that can lead to polyamorphic phase transitions.[32] In 2006 Italian scientists created an amorphous phase of carbon dioxide using extreme pressure. The substance was named amorphous carbonia(a-CO2) and exhibits an atomic structure resembling that of silica.[33]

Important polymer glasses include amorphous and glassy pharmaceutical compounds. These are useful because the solubility of the compound is greatly increased when it is amorphous compared to the same crystalline composition. Many emerging pharmaceuticals are practically insoluble in their crystalline forms.[34]

Concentrated colloidal suspensions may exhibit a distinct glass transition as function of particle concentration or density.[35][36][37]

In cell biology there is recent evidence suggesting that the cytoplasm behaves like a colloidal glass approaching the liquid-glass transition.[38][39] During periods of low metabolic activity, as in dormancy, the cytoplasm vitrifies and prohibits the movement to larger cytoplasmic particles while allowing the diffusion of smaller ones throughout the cell.[38]

Glass-ceramic materials share many properties with both non-crystalline glass and crystalline ceramics. They are formed as a glass, and then partially crystallized by heat treatment. For example, the microstructure of whiteware ceramics frequently contains both amorphous and crystalline phases. Crystalline grains are often embedded within a non-crystalline intergranular phase of grain boundaries. When applied to whiteware ceramics, vitreous means the material has an extremely low permeability to liquids, often but not always water, when determined by a specified test regime.[40][41]

The term mainly refers to a mix of lithium and aluminosilicates that yields an array of materials with interesting thermomechanical properties. The most commercially important of these have the distinction of being impervious to thermal shock. Thus, glass-ceramics have become extremely useful for countertop cooking. The negative thermal expansion coefficient (CTE) of the crystalline ceramic phase can be balanced with the positive CTE of the glassy phase. At a certain point (~70% crystalline) the glass-ceramic has a net CTE near zero. This type of glass-ceramic exhibits excellent mechanical properties and can sustain repeated and quick temperature changes up to 1000C.[40][41]

As in other amorphous solids, the atomic structure of a glass lacks any long-range translational periodicity. Due to chemical bonding characteristics glasses do possess a high degree of short-range order with respect to local atomic polyhedra.[42]

In physics, the standard definition of a glass (or vitreous solid) is a solid formed by rapid melt quenching.[43][44][45][46][47] The term glass is often used to describe any amorphous solid that exhibits a glass transition temperature Tg. If the cooling is sufficiently rapid (relative to the characteristic crystallization time) then crystallization is prevented and instead the disordered atomic configuration of the supercooled liquid is frozen into the solid state at Tg. The tendency for a material to form a glass while quenched is called glass-forming ability. This ability can be predicted by the rigidity theory.[48] Generally, the structure of a glass exists in a metastable state with respect to its crystalline form, although in certain circumstances, for example in atactic polymers, there is no crystalline analogue of the amorphous phase.[49]

Some people consider glass to be a liquid due to its lack of a first-order phase transition[50][51] where certain thermodynamic variables such as volume, entropy and enthalpy are discontinuous through the glass transition range. The glass transition may be described as analogous to a second-order phase transition where the intensive thermodynamic variables such as the thermal expansivity and heat capacity are discontinuous.[44] Nonetheless, the equilibrium theory of phase transformations does not entirely hold for glass, and hence the glass transition cannot be classed as one of the classical equilibrium phase transformations in solids.[46][47]

Glass is an amorphous solid. It exhibits an atomic structure close to that observed in the supercooled liquid phase but displays all the mechanical properties of a solid.[50][52] The notion that glass flows to an appreciable extent over extended periods of time is not supported by empirical research or theoretical analysis (see viscosity of amorphous materials). Laboratory measurements of room temperature glass flow do show a motion consistent with a material viscosity on the order of 10171018 Pa s.[53]

Although the atomic structure of glass shares characteristics of the structure in a supercooled liquid, glass tends to behave as a solid below its glass transition temperature.[54] A supercooled liquid behaves as a liquid, but it is below the freezing point of the material, and in some cases will crystallize almost instantly if a crystal is added as a core. The change in heat capacity at a glass transition and a melting transition of comparable materials are typically of the same order of magnitude, indicating that the change in active degrees of freedom is comparable as well. Both in a glass and in a crystal it is mostly only the vibrational degrees of freedom that remain active, whereas rotational and translational motion is arrested. This helps to explain why both crystalline and non-crystalline solids exhibit rigidity on most experimental time scales.

The observation that old windows are sometimes found to be thicker at the bottom than at the top is often offered as supporting evidence for the view that glass flows over a timescale of centuries, the assumption being that the glass has exhibited the liquid property of flowing from one shape to another.[56] This assumption is incorrect, as once solidified, glass stops flowing. The reason for the observation is that in the past, when panes of glass were commonly made by glassblowers, the technique used was to spin molten glass so as to create a round, mostly flat and even plate (the crown glass process, described above). This plate was then cut to fit a window. The pieces were not absolutely flat; the edges of the disk became a different thickness as the glass spun. When installed in a window frame, the glass would be placed with the thicker side down both for the sake of stability and to prevent water accumulating in the lead cames at the bottom of the window.[57] Occasionally such glass has been found installed with the thicker side at the top, left or right.[58]

Mass production of glass window panes in the early twentieth century caused a similar effect. In glass factories, molten glass was poured onto a large cooling table and allowed to spread. The resulting glass is thicker at the location of the pour, located at the center of the large sheet. These sheets were cut into smaller window panes with nonuniform thickness, typically with the location of the pour centered in one of the panes (known as "bull's-eyes") for decorative effect. Modern glass intended for windows is produced as float glass and is very uniform in thickness.

Several other points can be considered that contradict the "cathedral glass flow" theory:

Ear stud, ca. 13901353 B.C.E., 48.66.30, Brooklyn Museum. The shafts of these brightly colored studs were inserted through a hole in the earlobe to display the studs' circular heads.

Phoenician glass necklace 5th6th century BC

Roman glass amphoriskoi 1st2nd century AD

Blue head flask (Roman, AD 300500, cast glass)

Lombardic glass drinking horn 6th7th century AD

Two cups cobalt blue glass with gilt floral decoration from India, Mughal, circa 17001775

Base for a water pipe, India, Mughal, circa 17001775

Venetian goblet made in Italy in the early 19th century.

Bracelets with peacocks, Delhi, enameled silver inlaid with gemstones and glass, 19th century

Jug, 1876, James Powell & Sons

Siphon bottle for seltzer water, 1922

New Martinsville Glass Hostmaster Tea Cup, cobalt blue, 1930

Murano millefiori glass vase

Detail from a glass chandelier

The using of glass dials in this "mystery watch" creates the illusion the hands move without movement

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Marker of the Week Elvis Presley and Sun Records / Sun Records Memphis, Tennessee

This week 60 years ago in 1956, at a Carl Perkins recording session here with Jerry Lee Lewis at the piano, Johnny Cash was hanging around the control booth when Elvis Presley dropped in. The four gathered around the piano and a tape rolled. Discovered 20 years later, the 47 track recording was released in the U.S. in 1990 as The Million Dollar Quartet. Contributing Correspondent Mary Ellen Coghlan of Warwick, New York, submitted this entry in 2009 and since then a number of contributing correspondents have added to the page.

You can add markers yourself. It's easy! Check marker submission guidelines, then click to get started. Adding photos, links and commentary is just as easy: go the marker's page and click on the links at the top or bottom of the page.

To report a missing marker, use the Correct This Page link on the markers page and scroll down to the Is Marker Missing? section. A photo of the stump, hole in the ground, or place where the marker was is necessary for proof. Also, please take a few minutes and inform your local historical society.

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